gcc-reflection/gcc/algol68/ga68.texi

\input texinfo @c -*-texinfo-*-
@setfilename ga68.info
@settitle The GNU Algol 68 Compiler

@c Macro for bold-tags.  In TeX and HTML they expand to proper bold words,
@c in other formats it resorts to upper stropping.
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@c Create a separate index for command line options
@defcodeindex op
@c Merge the standard indexes into a single one.
@syncodeindex fn cp
@syncodeindex vr cp
@syncodeindex ky cp
@syncodeindex pg cp
@syncodeindex tp cp

@include gcc-common.texi

@c Copyright years for this manual.
@set copyrights-ga68 2025-2026

@copying
@c man begin COPYRIGHT
Copyright @copyright{} @value{copyrights-ga68} Free Software Foundation, Inc.

Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3 or
any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no
Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts.
A copy of the license is included in the
@c man end
section entitled ``GNU Free Documentation License''.
@ignore
@c man begin COPYRIGHT
man page gfdl(7).
@c man end
@end ignore
@end copying

@ifinfo
@format
@dircategory Software development
@direntry
* ga68: (ga68).               A GCC-based compiler for Algol 68
@end direntry
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@titlepage
@title The GNU Algol 68 Compiler
@versionsubtitle
@author Jose E. Marchesi

@page
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@summarycontents
@contents
@page

@node Top
@top Introduction

This manual describes how to use @command{ga68}, the GNU compiler for
Algol 68.  This manual is specifically about how to invoke
@command{ga68}, as well as its features.  For more information about
the Algol 68 language in general, the reader is referred to the
bibliography.

Note that the particular way of representing Algol 68 code snippets in
this manual will depend on the media.  If you are reading this manual
in a printed support or a PDF file rendered for publication then the
bold words in programs will be rendered in actual bold typography and
tags may have spaces within them.  If you are reading this manual in a
terminal or other media not supporting rich typography the code
examples will follow the modern stropping regime with is the default
in ga68.

Note also that we are making use of @dfn{pseudo-comments} in code
examples, as it is traditional in Algol 68 related documentation.
These appear surrounded by @code{@B{C}} marks and act as placeholders
of some Algol 68 code.  For example, @code{@B{C} frob the input
variable @B{C}} is a pseudo-comment.

@menu
* Invoking ga68::               How to run the compiler.
* Composing programs::          Packets, modules, holes, particular programs.
* Comments and pragmats::       Comments and pragmas.
* Hardware representation::     Representation of programs.
* Standard prelude::            Standard modes, operators, etc.
* Extended prelude::            GNU extensions to the standard prelude.
* POSIX prelude::               Simple I/O and system interaction facilities.
* Language extensions::         GNU extensions to the Algol 68 language.
* Copying::                     The GNU General Public License.
* GNU Free Documentation License::
                                How you can share and copy this manual.
* Option Index::                Index of command line options.
* General Index::               General index.
@end menu

@node Invoking ga68
@chapter Invoking ga68

@c man title ga68 A GCC-based compiler for Algol 68

@ignore
@c man begin SYNOPSIS ga68
ga68 [@option{-c}|@option{-S}] [@option{-g}] [@option{-pg}]
     [@option{-O}@var{level}] [@option{-W}@var{warn}@dots{}]
     [@option{-I}@var{dir}@dots{}] [@option{-L}@var{dir}@dots{}]
     [@option{-f}@var{option}@dots{}] [@option{-m}@var{machine-option}@dots{}]
     [@option{-o} @var{outfile}] [@@@var{file}] @var{infile}@dots{}

Only the most useful options are listed here; see below for the
remainder.
@c man end
@c man begin SEEALSO
gpl(7), gfdl(7), fsf-funding(7), gcc(1)
and the Info entries for @file{ga68} and @file{gcc}.
@c man end
@end ignore

@c man begin DESCRIPTION ga68

The @command{ga68} command is the GNU compiler for the Algol 68 language and
supports many of the same options as @command{gcc}.  @xref{Option Summary, ,
Option Summary, gcc, Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)}.
This manual only documents the options specific to @command{ga68}.

@c man end

@menu
* Dialect options::         Options controlling the accepted language.
* Directory options::       Options influencing where to find source files.
* Module search options::   Options influencing where to look for modules.
* Warnings options::        Options controlling warnings specific to ga68
* Runtime options::         Options controlling runtime behavior
* Linking options::         Options influencing the linking step
* Developer options::       Options useful for developers of ga68
@end menu

@node Dialect options
@section Dialect options
@cindex options, dialect

The following options control how the compiler handles certain dialect
variations of the language.

@table @gcctabopt
@opindex std=@var{std}
@item -std=@var{std}
Specify the standard to which the program is expected to conform,
which may be one of @samp{algol68} or @samp{gnu68}.  The default value
for @var{std} is @samp{gnu68}, which specifies a strict super language
of Algol 68 allowing GNU extensions.  The @samp{algol68} value
specifies that the program strictly conform to the Revised Report.
@opindex fstropping=@var{stropping_regime}
@item -fstropping=@var{stropping_regime}
Specify the stropping regime to expect in the input programs.  The
default value for @var{stropping_regime} is @samp{supper}, which
specifies the modern SUPPER stropping which is a GNU extension.  The
@samp{upper} value specifies the classic UPPER stropping of Algol 68
programs.  @xref{Stropping regimes}.
@opindex fbrackets
@opindex fno-brackets
@item -fbrackets
This option controls whether @code{[ .. ]} and @code{@{ .. @}} are
considered equivalent to @code{( .. )}.  This syntactic variation is
blessed by the Revised Report and is still strict Algol 68.

This option is disabled by default.
@end table

@node Directory options
@section Options for Directory Search
@cindex directory options
@cindex options, directory search
@cindex search path

These options specify directories to search for files, libraries, and
other parts of the compiler:

@table @gcctabopt

@opindex I
@item -I@var{dir}
Add the directory @var{dir} to the list of directories to be searched
for files when processing the @ref{pragmat include}.  Multiple
@option{-I} options can be used, and the directories specified are
scanned in left-to-right order, as with @command{gcc}.  The directory
will also be added to the list of directories to be searched for module
interface-definitions @ref{Module activation}.

@opindex L
@item -L@var{dir}
Add the directory @var{dir} to the list of directories to be searched
for module interface-definitions @ref{Module activation}.  Multiple
@option{-L} options can be used, and the directories specified are
scanned in left-to-right order, as with @command{gcc}.  The directory
will also be added to the list of library search directories, as with
@command{gcc}.

@end table

@node Module search options
@section Module search options
@cindex options, modules
@cindex modules

The following options can be used to tell the compiler where to look
for certain modules.

@table @gcctabopt
@opindex fmodules-map
@item -fmodules-map=@var{string}
Use the mapping between module indicants and module base filenames
specified in @var{string}, which must contain a sequence of entries
with form
@code{@var{basename}=@var{moduleindicant}[,@var{moduleindicant}]...}
separated by colon (@code{:}) characters.

When a module @var{moduleindicant} is accessed, the compiler will look
for exports information for it in files @file{@var{basename}.m68},
@file{lib@var{basename}.so}, @file{lib@var{basename}.a},
@file{@var{basename}.o}, in that order.

This option is used to avoid the default behavior, in which the
basename used to search for an accessed module is implicitly derived
from its indicant, by transforming it to lower case.

The effect of this option is accumulative.

@opindex fmodules-map-file
@item -fmodules-map-file=@var{<filename>}
Like @option{-fmodules-map}, but read the mapping information from the
file @var{<filename>}.
@end table

@node Warnings options
@section Warnings options
@cindex options, warnings
@cindex options, errors
@cindex warnings, suppressing
@cindex messages, error
@cindex messages, warning
@cindex suppressing warnings

Warnings are diagnostic messages that report constructions that
are not inherently erroneous but that are risky or suggest there
is likely to be a bug in the program.  Unless @option{-Werror} is
specified, they do not prevent compilation of the program.

@table @gcctabopt
@opindex Wvoiding
@opindex Wno-voiding
@item -Wvoiding
Warn on non-void units being voided due to a strong context.
@opindex Wscope
@opindex Wno-scope
@item -Wscope
Warn when a potential name scope violation is found.
@opindex Whidden-declarations
@opindex Wno-hidden-declarations
@item -Whidden-declarations=@var{level}
Warn when a declaration hides another declaration in a larger reach.
This includes operators that hide firmly related operators defined in
larger reach.

@table @gcctabopt
@item -Whidden-declarations=none
At this level no warning is issued for any hidden declaration on an
outer scope.

@item -Whidden-declarations=prelude
At this level, warnings are issued for hidden declarations defined in
the standard prelude.  This is the default warning level of
@option{-Whidden-declarations}.

@item -Whidden-declarations=all
At this level, warnings are issued for any and all hidden
declarations.
@end table

@opindex Wextensions
@opindex Wno-extensions
@item -Wextensions
Warn when a non-portable Algol 68 construct is used, like GNU
extensions to Algol 68.
@end table

@node Runtime options
@section Runtime options
@cindex options, runtime

These options affect the runtime behavior of programs compiled with
@command{ga68}.

@table @gcctabopt
@opindex fassert
@opindex fno-assert
@item -fno-assert
Turn off code generation for @code{ASSERT} contracts.

@opindex fcheck
@item -fcheck=@var{<keyword>}
Enable the generation of run-time checks; the argument shall be a
comma-delimited list of the following keywords.  Prefixing a check
with @option{no-} disables it if it was activated by a previous
specification.

@table @asis
@item @samp{all}
Enable all run-time test of @option{-fcheck}.

@item @samp{none}
Disable all run-time test of @option{-fcheck}.

@item @samp{nil}
Check for nil while dereferencing.

@item @samp{bounds}
Enable generation of run-time checks when indexing and trimming
multiple values.
@end table
@end table

@node Linking options
@section Linking options
@cindex options, linking
@cindex linking, static

These options come into play when the compiler links object files into
an executable output file.  They are meaningless if the compiler is
not doing a link step.

@table @gcctabopt

@opindex shared-libga68
@item -shared-libga68
On systems that provide @file{libga68} as a shared and a static
library, this option forces the use of the shared version.  If no
shared version was built when the compiler was configured, this option
has no effect.

@opindex static-libga68
@item -static-libga68
On systems that provide @file{libga68} as a shared and a static
library, this option forces the use of the static version.  If no
static version was built when the compiler was configured, this option
has no effect.  This is the default.
@end table

@node Developer options
@section Developer options
@cindex developer options
@cindex debug dump options
@cindex dump options

This section describes command-line options that are primarily of
interest to developers.

@table @gcctabopt
@opindex fa68-dump-modes
@item -fa68-dump-modes
Output a list of all the modes parsed by the front-end.

@opindex fa68-dump-ast
@item -fa68-dump-ast
Dump a textual representation of the parse tree.

@opindex fa68-dump-module-interfaces
@item -fa68-dump-module-interfaces
Dump the interfaces of module definitions in the compiled packet.
@end table

@node Composing programs
@chapter Composing programs
@cindex program
@cindex separated compilation

This chapter documents how to compose full Algol 68 programs using the
modules and separated compilation support provided by this compiler.

@menu
* Packets::                  Compilation units.
* Modules::                  Facilities for bottom-up programming.
* Particular programs::      The main program.
* The standard environment:: Environment conforming a full program.
@end menu

@node Packets
@section Packets
@cindex packet
@cindex compilation unit

Each Algol 68 source file, which are files using the file extension
@file{.a68}, contains the definition of a so-called @dfn{packet}.
Packets therefore play the role of @dfn{compilation units}, and each
packet can be compiled separately to an object file.  A set of
compiled object files can then be linked in the usual fashion into an
executable, archive or shared object by the system linker, without the
need of any language-specific link editor or build system.

@noindent
This compiler supports two different kind of packets:

@itemize @minus
@item
@dfn{Particular programs} constitute the entry point of a program.
They roughly speaking correspond to the @code{main} function of other
languages like C.

@xref{Particular programs}.

@item
@dfn{Prelude packets} contain the definition of @dfn{modules}, which
@dfn{publicize} definitions of modes, procedures, variables, operators
and even the publicized definitions of other modules.  Each prelude
packet defines a single packet, defined at the top-level, which can be
accessed by other packets (be them particular programs or other
prelude packets) via an @code{@B{access}} construct.  Prelude packets
are so-called because their contents get conceptually stuffed in the
@dfn{user-prelude} in the case of user-defined modules, or the
@dfn{library-prelude} in the case of module packets provided by the
compiler.  They are usually used to compose libraries that can be used
in a bottom-up fashion.

@xref{Modules}.
@end itemize

Future versions of this compiler will eventually support a third kind
of packet, oriented to top-down development:

@itemize @minus
@item
@dfn{Stuffing packets} contain the definition of an @dfn{actual hole},
an @code{@B{egg}} construct, that can be stuffed in a matching
@dfn{formal hole} in another package via a @code{@B{nest}} construct.
Formal holes are used in order to achieve separated compilation in a
top-bottom fashion, and also to invoke procedures written in other
languages, such as C functions or Fortran subroutines.

@end itemize

A @dfn{collection of packets}, all of which must be compatible with
each other, constitutes either a @dfn{program} or a @dfn{library}.
Exactly one of the packets constituting a program shall be a
particular program.  In libraries at least one packet must be a
prelude packet.

@node Modules
@section Modules
@cindex module

@dfn{Definition modules}, often referred as just @dfn{modules} in the
sequel, fulfill two different but related purposes.  On one side, they
provide some degree of @dfn{protection} by preventing accessing
indicators defined within the module but not explicitly publicized.
On the other, they allow to define @dfn{interfaces}, allow separated
compilation based on these interfaces, and conform libraries.

Modules are usually associated with bottom-up development strategies,
where several already written components are grouped and combined to
conform bigger components.

@menu
* Writing modules::                Writing modules.
* Accessing modules::              Using the definitions of a module.
* Module activation::              How and when modules execute.
* Modules and exports::            How the compiler searches for modules.
* Modules and libraries::          Using modules to conform libraries.
* Modules and protection::         When block structure is not enough.
@end menu

@node Writing modules
@subsection Writing modules

A @dfn{definition module} is a construct that provides access to a set
of publicized definitions.  They appear in the outer reach of a
prelude packet and constitute its only contents (@pxref{Packets}).
They are composed of a prelude and a postlude.  The publicized
definitions appear in the module's prelude.

Consider for example the following definition module, which implements
a very simple logging facility:

@example
@B{module} @B{Logger} =
@B{def} @B{int} fd = stderr;
    @B{pub} @B{string} originator;
    @B{pub} @B{proc} log = (@B{string} msg) @B{void}:
           fputs (fd, (originator /= "" | ": ") + msg + "'n");

    log ("beginning of log'n");
@B{postlude}
    log ("end of log'n");
@B{fed}
@end example

@noindent
The @dfn{module text} delimited by @code{@B{def}} and @code{@B{fed}}
gets ascribed to the module indicator @code{@B{Logger}}.  Module
indicators are bold tags.

The @dfn{prelude} of the module spans from @code{@B{def}} to either
@code{@B{postlude}}, or to @code{@B{fed}} in case of modules not
featuring a postlude.  It consists on a restricted serial clause in a
void strong context, which can contain units and declarations, but no
labels or completers.  The declarations in the prelude may be either
publicized or no publicized.  As we shall see, publicized indicators
are accessible within the reach of the defining module publicizing
them.  Publicized declarations are marked by preceding them with
@code{@B{pub}}.

In our example the module prelude consists on three declarations and
one unit.  The tag @code{fd} is not publicized and is to be used
internally by the module.  The indicators @code{originator} and
@code{log}, on the other hand, are publicized and conform the
interface of the module.  Note how the range of the prelude also
covers the postlude: the @code{log} procedure is reachable there, as
it would be @code{fd} as well.

The @dfn{postlude} of the module is optional and spans from
@code{@B{postlude}} to @code{@B{fed}}.  It consists on a serial clause
in a @code{@B{void}} strong context, where definitions, labels and
module accesses are not allowed, just units.

@node Accessing modules
@subsection Accessing modules

Once a module is defined (@pxref{Writing modules}) it can be accessed
from other packets using an @dfn{access clause}.  The access clause
identifies the modules to access and then makes the publicized
definitions of these modules visible within a @dfn{control clause}.

For example, this is how we could use the logger definition module
defined in a previous section to log the progress of some particular
program that reads an input file and writes some output file:

@example
@B{access} @B{Logger}
@B{begin} # Identify ourselves with the program name #
      originator := argv (1);

      # Read input file.  #
      @B{if} @B{NOT} parse_input (argv (2))
      @B{then} log ("error parsing input file"); stop @B{fi};

      # Write output file.  #
      @B{if} @B{NOT} write_output (argv (3))
      @B{then} log ("error writing output file"); stop @B{fi};

      log ("success")
@B{end}
@end example

@noindent
In this case the controlled clause is the closed clause conforming the
particular program, and the definitions publicized by the logger
module, in this case @code{originator} and @code{log}, can be used
within it.

@subsubsection Accessing several modules

An access clause is not restricted to just provide access to a single
module: any number of module indicators can be specified in an access
clause.  Suppose that our example processing program has to read and
write the data in JSON format, and that a suitable JSON library is
available in the form of a reachable module.  We could then make both
logger and json modules accessible like this:

@example
@B{access} @B{Logger}, @B{JSON}
@B{begin} @{ Identify ourselves with the program name @}
      originator := argv (1);

      @B{JSONVal} data;

      @{ Read input file.  @}
      @B{if} data := json_from_file (argv (2));
         data = json_no_val
      @B{then} log ("error parsing input file"); stop @B{fi};

      @{ Write output file.  @}
      @B{if} @B{not} json_to_file (argv (3), data)
      @B{then} log ("error writing output file"); stop @B{fi};

      log ("success")
@B{end}
@end example

@noindent
In this version of the program the access clause includes the module
indicator @code{@B{JSON}}, and that makes the mode indicator
@code{@B{jsonval}} and the tags @code{json_no_val},
@code{json_from_file} and @code{json_to_file} visible within the
program's closed clause.

Note that the following two access clauses are not equivalent:

@example
@B{access} @B{Logger}, @B{JSON} @B{C} ... @B{C};
@B{access} @B{Logger} @B{access} @B{JSON} @B{C} ... @B{C};
@end example

@noindent
In the first case, a compilation time error is emitted if there is a
conflict among the publicized definitions of both modules; for
example, if both modules were to publicize a procedure called
@code{log}.  In the second case, the declaration of @code{log}
publicized by @code{@B{Logger}} would hide the declaration of
@code{log} publicized by @code{@B{JSON}}.  This also has implications
related to activation, that we will be discussing in a later section.

@subsubsection The controlled clause

The controlled clause in an access clause doesn't have to be a serial
clause, like in the examples above.  It can be any enclosed clause,
like for example a loop clause:

@example
@B{proc} frobnicate frobs = ([]@B{Frob} frobs) @B{void}:
   @B{access} @B{Logger} @B{to} @B{UPB} frobs
                 @B{do} log ("frobnicating " + name @B{of} frob);
                    frobnicate (frob)
                 @B{od}
@end example

@subsubsection The value yielded by an access clause

The elaboration of an access clause yields a value, which is the value
yielded by the elaboration of the controlled clause.  Since the later
is an enclosed clause, coercions get passed into them whenever
required, the usual fashion.

We can see an example of this in the following procedure, whose body
is a controlled closed clause that yields a @code{@B{real}} value:

@example
@B{proc} incr factor = (@B{ref}[]@B{real} factors, @B{int} idx) @B{real}:
   @B{access} @B{logger} (log ("factor increased"); factors[idx] +:= 1.0)
@end example

@noindent
Note how the access clause above is in a strong context requiring a
value of mode @code{@B{real}}.  The value yielded by the access clause
is the value yielded by the controlled enclosed clause, which in this
case is a closed clause.  The strong context and required mode gets
passed to the last unit of the closed clause (the assignation) which
in this case yields a value of mode @code{@B{ref} @B{real}}.  The unit
is coerced to @code{@B{real}} by dereferencing, and the resulting
value becomes the value yielded by the access clause.

@subsubsection Modules accessing other modules

Up to this point we have seen particular programs accessing modules,
but a definition module may itself access other modules.  This is done
by placing the module text as a controlled clause of an access clause.
Suppose we rewrite our logger module so it uses JSON internally to log
JSON objects rather than raw strings.  We could do it this way:

@example
@B{module} @B{Logger} =
   @B{access} @B{JSON}
   @B{def} @B{int} fd = stderr;
       @B{pub} @B{string} originator;
       @B{pub} @B{proc} log = (@B{string} msg) @B{void}:
              fputs (fd, json_array (json_string (originator),
                                     json_string (msg)));

       log (json_string ("beginning of log'n"));
   @B{postlude}
       log (json_string ("end of log'n"));
   @B{fed}
@end example

@noindent
Note how this version of @code{@B{Logger}} uses a few definitions
publicized by the @code{@B{JSON}} module.

A program accessing @code{@B{Logger}} will not see the definitions
publicized by the @code{@B{JSON}} module.  If that is what we
intended, for example to allow the users of the logger to tweak their
own JSON, we would need to specify it this way:

@example
@B{module} @B{Logger} =
   @B{access} @B{pub} @B{JSON}
   @B{def} @B{c} ...as before... @B{c} @B{fed}
@end example

@noindent
In this version the definitions publicized by @code{@B{JSON}} become
visible to programs accessing @code{@B{Logger}}.

@node Module activation
@subsection Module activation

In all the examples seen so far the modules were accessed just once.
In these cases, accessing the module via an access-clause causes the
@dfn{activation} of the module.

Activating a module involves elaborating all the declarations and
units that conform its prelude.  Depending on the particular module
definition that gets activated, this may involve all sort of side
effects, such as allocating space for values and initializing them,
opening files, @i{etc}.  Once the modules specified in the access
clause are successfully activated, the controlled clause gets
elaborated itself, within the reach of all the publicized definitions
by the activated modules as we saw in the last section.  Finally, once
the controlled clause has been elaborated, the module gets
@dfn{revoked} by elaborating the serial clause in its postlude.

However, nothing prevents some given definition module to be accessed
more than once in the same program.  The following program, that makes
use of the @code{@B{logger}} module, exemplifies this:

@example
@B{access} @B{Logger}
@B{begin} originator := argv (1);
      log ("executing program");
      @B{c} ... @B{c}
      @B{access} @B{Logger} (originator := argv (1) + ":subtask";
                     log ("doing subtask")
                     @B{c} ... @B{c})
@B{end}
@end example

@noindent
In this program the module @code{@B{Logger}} is accessed twice.  The
code is obviously written assuming that the inner access clause
triggers a new activation of the @code{@B{Logger}} module, allocating
new storage and executing its prelude.  This would result in the
following log contents:

@example
a.out: beginning of log
a.out: executing program
a.out:subtask: beginning of log
a.out:subtask: doing subtask
a.out:subtask: end of log
a.out: end of log
@end example

@noindent
However, this is not what happens.  The module gets only activated
once, as the result of the outer access clause.  The inner access
clause just makes the publicized indicators visible in its controlled
clause.  The actual resulting log output is:

@example
a.out: beginning of log
a.out: executing program
a.out:subtask: doing subtask
a.out:subtask: end of log
@end example

@noindent
Which is not what we intended.  Modules are not classes.  If we wanted
the logger to support several originators that can be nested, we would
need to add support for it in the definition module.  Something like:

@example
@B{module} @B{Logger} =
   @B{def} @B{int} fd = stderr, max_originators = 10;
       @B{int} orig := 0;
       [max_originators]@B{string} originators;

       @B{pub} @B{proc} push_originator = (@B{string} str) @B{void}:
              (@B{assert} (orig < max_originators);
               orig +:= 1;
               originators[orig] := str);
       @B{pub} @B{proc} pop_originator = @B{void}:
              (@B{assert} (max_originators > 0);
               orig -:= 1);
       @B{pub} @B{proc} log = (@B{string} msg) @B{void}:
              fputs (fd, (originator[orig] /= "" | ": ") + msg + "'n");

       log ("beginning of log'n");
   @B{postlude}
       log ("end of log'n");
   @B{fed}
@end example

@noindent
Note how in this version of @code{@B{Logger}} @code{originators} acts
as a stack of originator strings, and it is not publicized.  The
management of the stack is done via a pair of publicized procedures
@code{push_originator} and @code{pop_originator}.  Our program will
now look like:

@example
@B{access} @B{Logger}
@B{begin} push_originator (argv (1));
      log ("executing program");
      @B{c} ... @B{c}
      @B{access} @B{logger} (push_originator ("subtask");
                     log ("doing subtask")
                     @B{c} ... @B{c};
                     pop_originator)
@B{end}
@end example

@noindent
And the log output is:

@example
a.out: beginning of log
a.out: executing program
a.out:subtask: doing subtask
a.out: end of log
@end example

@node Modules and exports
@subsection Modules and exports
@cindex exports

As we have seen, each Algol 68 source file contains either a
particular program or a prelude packet.  Prelude packets consist on
the definition of a single top-level module, that is itself identified
by a module indicant.

Consider for example a source file called @file{trilean.a68} that
implements strong Kleene three-valued (``trilean'') logic.  It does so
by the mean of a definition module called @code{@B{Trilean}}.  A
sketch of such a file may look like this:

@example
@B{module} @B{Trilean} =
@B{def}
    @B{pub} @B{mode} @B{Tril} = @B{int};

    @B{pub} @B{Tril} dontknow = 0, yes = 1, no = 2;

    @B{pub} @B{prio} @B{AND3} = 3, @B{OR3} = 3, @B{XOR3} = 3;

    @B{pub} @B{op} @B{NOT3} = (@B{Tril} a) @B{Tril}:
       (a + 1 | dontknow, no, yes);

    @B{C} ... other definitions ... @B{C}
@B{fed}
@end example

The module indicant @code{@B{Trilean}} identifies the module.  If we
now compile this file to an object file using GCC:

@example
$ ga68 -c trilean.a68
@end example

The result of the compilation is an object file @file{trilean.o}, plus
some @dfn{exports information} which is placed in a section in the
object file, named @code{.a68_exports}.  The exports information
describes the interface provided by the @code{@B{Trilean}} module
defined in the compilation unit.  This includes all the modes,
identifiers, priorities, operators, etc, that are publicized by the
module.  The particular encoding used to hold these exports is highly
compact and not easy readable by persons; instead, it is designed to
be read back by GCC when it builds another compilation unit that, in
turn, needs to access the @code{@B{Trilean}} module.

Consider the following sketched particular program that resides in a
source file @file{main.a68}, and that uses trilean logic:

@example
@B{access} @B{Trilean}
@B{begin}
      @B{C} ... @B{C}
@B{end}
@end example

When this program gets compiled by GCC using @code{ga68 -c
program.a68}, the compiler finds the access clause and needs to locate
some exports for the module @code{@B{Trilean}}.  To do so, it searches
in the modules search path, composed by the current working directory,
some system directories and all directories specified in @option{-I}
and @option{-L} options, looking for files called @file{trilean.m68},
@file{trilean.so}, @file{trilean.a} and @file{trilean.o}, in that
order, where:

@table @file
@item trilean.m68
Is a stand-alone file expected to contain export data for one or more
modules.
@item trilean.so
Is a DSO, or shared object, expected to contain a @code{.a68_exports}
section with exports data for one or more modules.
@item trilean.a
Is an archive, whose constituent object files may contain
@code{.a68_exports} sections with exports data for one or more
modules.
@item trilean.o
Is an object file expected to contain export data for one or more
modules in a @code{.a68_exports} section.
@end table

The files are tried in order, and if export data for the requested
module @code{@B{Trilean}} is found, it is read in, decoded, and used
to compile @file{main.a68} into @file{main.o}.

The last step in obtaining an executable for our program would be to
use GCC to do a link like @code{ga68 trilean.o main.o -o main}.

Module indicants such as @code{@B{Trilean}} are bold words in the
language.  This means that, independently of the stropping regime
used, they are constituted by a bold letter followed by a sequence of
zero or more bold letters and digits.  Using the modern stropping
supported by the GNU Algol 68 compiler, this means that all of
@code{@B{Trilean}}, @code{@B{TRILEAN}} and @code{@B{Tri_lean}} denote
exactly the same module indicant, @b{trilean}.

The mapping from module indicant to the ``base name'' used to locate
the module exports is quite straightforward: the bold letters are
transformed to lower-case letters, and the bold digits are just normal
digits.  Therefore, the exports for the module
@code{@B{GRAMP_Grammar}} would looked in files
@file{grampgrammar.m68}, @file{libgrampgrammar.so}, etc.

But often this default, straightforward mapping, is not what we need.

Suppose for example that a shared object installed in the system,
@file{liba68goodies.so}, provides many facilities in the form of
several modules, including a @code{@B{Trilean}} module.  We want to
use the trilean implementation of liba68goodies in our program
@file{main.a68}.  If we just @code{@B{access} @B{Trilean}} GCC will
look for @file{trilean.m68} etc, but wont even consider looking in
@file{liba68goodies.so}.  Accessing @code{@B{A68Goodies}} is obviously
not a solution, as the module we want is @code{@B{Trilean}} and there
may not even be a module called @code{@B{A68Goodies}} in
@file{liba68goodies.so}.

The solution for this is to use the @dfn{modules map} of the compiler.
This map is an association or map between module indicants and
base-names.  When it comes to access some module, the compiler looks
in the map.  If there is an entry for the module's indicant, then it
fetches the base-name to use for looking for the module's export data.
If there is not an entry for the module's indicant then the default,
straightforward mapping described above is attempted.

By default the map is empty, but we can add entries by using the
@option{-fmodules-map=} and @option{-fmodules-map-file=} command-line
options.  The first option expects entries to be added to the map in a
string in the command-line, whereas the second option expects the name
of a file containing the entries to add to the map.  In both cases the
format describing the entries is exactly the same (@pxref{Module
search options}).

In our case, we could compile our main program specifying an entry in
the map telling the compiler where to find the trilean and logging
modules:

@example
$ ga68 -fmodules-map="a68goodies=Trilean,Logger" -c main.a68
@end example

@node Modules and libraries
@subsection Modules and libraries
@cindex library
@cindex prelude packet

XXX

As we have seen modules are accessed by referring to them in
access-clauses, using the same sort of bold-word indicants that
identify user-defined modes and operators, such as @code{JSON},
@code{Transput} or @code{LEB128_Arithmetic}.

@node Modules and protection
@subsection Modules and protection
@cindex protection
@cindex publicized definition

XXX

@node Particular programs
@section Particular programs
@cindex particular program

An Algol 68 @dfn{particular program} consists on an enclosed clause in
a strong context with target mode @code{@B{void}}, possibly preceded
by a set of zero or more labels.  For example:

@example
hello:
@B{begin} puts ("Hello, world!'n")
@B{end}
@end example

@noindent
Note that the enclosed clause conforming the particular program
doesn't have to be a closed clause.  Consider for example the
following program, that prints out its command line arguments:

@example
@B{for} i @B{to} argc
@B{do} puts (argv (i) + "'n") @B{od}
@end example

@menu
* Exit status::              How do programs communicate success or failure.
* The @code{stop} label::    How to terminate a program at any time.
@end menu

@node Exit status
@subsection Exit status
@cindex exit status

Some operating systems have the notion of @dfn{exit status} of a
process.  In such systems, by default the execution of the particular
program results in an exit status of success.  It is possible for the
program to specify an explicit exit status by using the standard
procedure @code{set exit status}, like:

@example
@b{begin} # ... program code ... #
     @B{if} error found;
     @B{then} set exit status (1) @B{fi}
@b{end}
@end example

In POSIX systems the status is an integer, and the system interprets a
value other than zero as a run-time error.  In other systems the
status may be of some other type.  To support this, the @code{set
error status} procedure accepts as an argument an united value that
accommodates all the supported systems.

The following example shows a very simple program that prints ``Hello
world'' on the standard output and then returns to the operating
system with a success status:

@example
@B{begin} puts ("Hello world'n")
@B{end}
@end example

@node The @code{stop} label
@subsection The @code{stop} label
@cindex @code{stop}

A predefined label named @code{stop} is defined in the standard
postlude.  This label can be jumped to at any time by a program and it
will cause it to terminate and exit.  For example:

@example
@B{begin} @B{if} argc /= 2
      @B{then} puts ("Program requires exactly two arguments.");
     goto stop
      @B{fi}
      @B{C} ... @B{C}
@B{end}
@end example

@node The standard environment
@section The standard environment
@cindex standard environment

The environment in which particular programs run is expressed here in
the form of pseudo code:

@example
(@B{c} standard-prelude @B{c};
 @B{c} library-prelude @B{c};
 @B{c} system-prelude @B{c};
 @B{par} @B{begin} @B{c} system-task-1 @B{c},
           @B{c} system-task-2 @B{c},
           @B{c} system-task-n @B{c},
           @B{c} user-task-1 @B{c},
           @B{c} user-task-2 @B{c},
           @B{c} user-task-m @B{c}
     @B{end})
@end example

@noindent
Where each user task consists on:

@example
(@B{c} particular-prelude @B{c};
 @B{c} user-prelude @B{c};
 @B{c} particular-program @B{c};
 @B{c} particular-postlude @B{c})
@end example

The only standard system task described in the report is expressed in
pseudo-code as:

@example
@B{do} @B{down} gremlins; undefined; @B{up} bfileprotect @B{od}
@end example

@noindent
Which denotes that, once a book (file) is closed, anything may happen.
Other system tasks may exist, depending on the operating system.  In
general these tasks in the parallel clause denote the fact that the
operating system is running in parallel (intercalated) with the user's
particular programs.

@itemize @bullet
@item
The library-prelude contains, among other things, the prelude parts of
the defining modules provided by library.

@item
The particular-prelude and particular-postlude are common to all the
particular programs.

@item
The user-prelude is where the prelude parts of the defining modules
involved in the compilation get stuffed.  If no defining module is
involved then the user-prelude is empty.
@end itemize

Subsequent sections in this manual include a detailed description of
the contents of these preludes.

@node Comments and pragmats
@chapter Comments and pragmats

Comments and pragmats, also known collectively as @dfn{pragments}, can
appear almost anywhere in an Algol 68 program.  Comments are usually
used for documentation purposes, and pragmats contain annotations for
the compiler.  Both are handled at the lexical level.

@menu
* Comments::                    Your typical friendly comments.
* Pragmats::                    In-source directives for the compiler.
@end menu

@node Comments
@section Comments

In the default modern stropping regime supported by GCC comments are
written between @code{@{} and @code{@}} delimiters, and can be nested
to arbitrary depth.  For example:

@example
foo +:= 1; @{ Increment foo.  @}
@end example

If UPPER stropping is selected, this compiler additionally supports
three classical Algol 68 comment styles, in which the symbols marking
the beginning of comments are the same than the symbols marking the
end of comments and therefore can't be nested: @code{@B{comment}
... @B{comment}}, @code{@B{co} ... @B{co}} and @code{# .. #}.  For
example:

@example
@B{comment}
  This is a comment.
@B{comment}

foo := 10; @B{co} this is also a comment @B{co}
foo +:= 1; # and so is this.  #
@end example

Unless @option{-std=algol68} is specified in the command line, two
styles of nestable comments can be also used with UPPER stropping: the
already explained @code{@{ ... @}} and a ``bold'' style that uses
@code{@B{code} ... @B{edoc}}.  For example:

@example
foo := 10; @{ this is a nestable comment in brief style.  @}
foo +:= 1; @B{note} this is a nestable comment in bold style.  @B{eton}.
@end example

@example
@B{note}
   "Bold" nestable comments.
@B{eton}

@{ "Brief" nestable comments. @}
@end example

In UPPER stropping all comment styles are available, both classic and
nestable.  In modern SUPPER stropping, which is based on reserved
words, only @code{@{ ... @}} is available.

@node Pragmats
@section Pragmats

@cindex pragmat
@dfn{Pragmats} (also known as @dfn{pragmas} in other programming
languages) are directives and annotations for the compiler, and their
usage impacts the compilation process in several ways.  A pragmat
starts with either @code{@B{pragmat}} or @code{@B{pr}} and finished
with either @code{@B{pragmat}} or @code{@B{pr}} respectively.
Pragmats cannot be nested.  For example:

@example
@B{pr} include "foo.a68" @B{pr}
@end example

The interpretation of pragmats is compiler-specific.  This chapter
documents the pragmats supported by GCC.

@menu
* pragmat include::         Include another source file.
@end menu

@node pragmat include
@subsection pragmat include
@cindex include

An @dfn{include pragmat} has the form:

@example
@B{pr} include "PATH" @B{pr}
@end example

@noindent
Where @code{PATH} is the path of the file whose contents are to be
included at the location of the pragmat.  If the provided path is
relative then it is interpreted as relative to the directory
containing the source file that contains the pragmat.

The @option{-I} command line option can be used in order to add
additional search paths for @code{include}.

@node Hardware representation
@chapter Hardware representation

The @dfn{reference language} specified by the Revised Report describes
Algol 68 particular programs as composed by @dfn{symbols}.  However,
the Report leaves the matter of the concrete representation of these
symbols, the @dfn{representation language}, open to the several
implementations.  This was motivated by the very heterogeneous
computer systems in existence at the time the Report was written,
which made flexibility in terms of representation a crucial matter.

This flexibility was indeed exploited by the early implementations,
and there was a price to pay for it.  A few years after the
publication of the Revised Report the different implementations had
already given rise to a plethora of many related languages that,
albeit being strict Algol 68, differed considerably in appearance.
This, and the fact that people were already engrossed in writing
programs other than compilers that needed to process Algol 68
programs, such as code formatters and macro processors, prompted the
WG 2.1 to develop and publish a @dfn{Report on the Standard Hardware
Representation for ALGOL 68}, which came out in 1975.

This compiler generally follows the Standard Hardware Representation,
but deviates from it in a few aspects.  This chapter provides an
overview of the hardware representation and documents any deviation.

@menu
* Representation languages::  From symbols to syntactic marks.
* Worthy characters::         Marks that can appear in a program.
* Base characters::           Mapping of worthy characters to code points.
* Stropping regimes::         Representation of bold words.
* Monads and Nomads::         Characters that can appear in operator names.
* String breaks::             String literals and escape sequences.
@end menu

@node Representation languages
@section Representation languages

A program in the strict Algol 68 language is composed by a series of
symbols.  These symbols have names such as @code{letter-a-symbol} and
@code{assigns-to-symbol} which are, well, purely symbolic. In fact,
these are notions in the two-level grammar that defines the strict
language.

A @dfn{representation language} provides a mapping between symbols in
the strict language and the representation of these symbols.  Each
representation is a sequence of syntactic marks.  For example, the
@code{completion symbol} may be represented by @strong{exit}, where
the marks are the bold letters.  The @code{tilde symbol} may be
represented by @code{~}, which is a single mark. The representation of
@code{assigns to symbol} is @code{:=}, which is composed by the two
marks @code{:} and @code{=}.  The representation of @code{letter-a}
is, not surprising, the single mark @code{a}.

The section 9.4 of the Report describes the recommended representation
for all the symbols of the language.  The set of all recommendations
constitutes the so-called @dfn{reference language}. Algol 68
implementations are strongly encouraged to use representation
languages which are similar enough to the reference language,
recognizable ``without further elucidation'', but this is not
strictly required.

A representation language may specify more than one representation for
a given symbol.  For example, in the reference language the @code{is
not symbol} is represented by @strong{isnt}, @code{:/=:} and a variant
of the later where the slash sign is superimposed on the equal sign.
In this case, an implementation can choose to implement any number of
the representations.

Spaces, tabs and newlines are @dfn{typographical display features}
that, when they appear between symbols, are of no significance and do
not alter the meaning of the program.  However, when a space or a tab
appear in string or character denotations, they represent the
@code{space symbol} and the @code{tab symbol}
respectively@footnote{The @code{tab symbol} is a GNU extension}.  The
different stropping regimes, however, may impose specific restrictions
on where typographical display features may or may not
appear. @xref{Stropping regimes}.

@node Worthy characters
@section Worthy characters
@cindex worthy characters

The syntactic marks of a representation language, both symbols and
typographical display features, are realized as a set of @dfn{worthy
characters} and the newline. Effectively, an Algol 68 program is a
sequence of @dfn{worthy characters} and newlines.  The worthy
characters are:

@example
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
space tab " # $ % & ' ( ) * + , - . / : ; < = >  @@ [ \ ]
^ _ | @ ! ? ~ @{ @}
@end example

Some of the characters above were considered unworthy by the original
Standard Hardware Representation:

@table @code
@item !
It was considered unworthy because many installations didn't have a
vertical bar base character, and @code{!} was used as a base character
for @code{|}.  Today every computer system features a vertical bar
character, so @code{!} can qualify as a worthy character.
@item &
The Revised Report specifies that @code{&} is a monad, used as a
symbol for the dyadic @code{@B{and}} operator.  The Standard Hardware
representation decided to turn it into an unworthy character,
motivated by the fact that no nomads existed for the other logical
operators @code{@B{not}} and @code{@B{or}}, and also with the goal of
maintaining the set of worthy characters as small as possible to
improve portability.  Recognizing that the first motivation still
holds, but not the second, this compiler re-instates @code{&} as a
monad but doesn't use it as an alternative representation of the
@code{@B{and}} operator.
@item ~
The Standard Hardware Representation vaguely cites some ``severe
difficulties'' with the hardware representation of the tilde
character.  Whatever these difficulties were at the time, they surely
don't exist anymore.  This compiler therefore recognizes @code{~} as a
worthy character, and is used as a monad.
@item ?
The question mark character was omitted as a worthy character to limit
the size of the worthy set.  This compiler recognizes @code{?} as a
worthy character, and is used as a monad.
@item \
Back-slash wasn't included as a worthy character because back in 1975
it wasn't supported in EBCDIC (it is now).  This compiler recognizes
@code{\} as a worthy character.
@item tab
This compiler recognizes the tabulator character as a worthy
character, and it is used as a typographical display feature.
@end table

@node Base characters
@section Base characters
@cindex base characters

The worthy characters described in the previous section are to be
interpreted symbolically rather than visually.  The worthy character
@code{|}, for example, is the vertical line character and generally
looks the same in every system.  The worthy character @code{space} is
obviously referred by a symbolic name.

The actual visually distinguishable characters available in an
installation are known as @dfn{base characters}.  The Standard
Hardware Representation allows implementations the possibility of
using two or more base characters to represent a single worthy
character.  This was the case of the @code{|} character, which was
represented in many implementations by either @code{|} or @code{!}.

This compiler uses the set of base characters corresponding to the
subset of the Unicode character set that maps one to one to the set of
worthy characters described in the previous section:

@example
A-Z   65-90
a-z   97-122
space 32
tab   9
!     33
"     34
#     35
$     36
%     37
&     38
'     39
(     40
)     41
*     42
+     43
,     44
-     45
.     46
/     47
:     58
;     59
<     60
=     61
>     62
?     63
@@     64
[     91
\     92
]     93
^     94
_     95
|     124
~     126
@end example

@node Stropping regimes
@section Stropping regimes

The Algol 68 reference language establishes that certain source
constructs, namely mode indications and operator indications, consist
in a sequence of @dfn{bold letters} and @dfn{bold digits}, known as a
@dfn{bold word}.  In contrast, other constructs like identifiers,
field selectors and labels, collectively known as @dfn{tags}, are
composed of regular, non-bold letters and digits.

What is precisely a bold letter or digit, and how they differ from
non-bold letters and digits, is not specified by the Report.  This is
no negligence, but a conscious effort at abstracting the definition of
the so-called @dfn{strict language} from its representation.  This
allows different representations of the same language.

Some representations of Algol 68 are intended to be published in
books, be it paper or electronic devices, and be consumed by persons.
These are called @dfn{publication languages}.  In publication
languages bold letters and digits are typically represented by actual
bold alphanumeric typographic marks.  An Algol 68 program hand written
on a napkin or a sheet of paper would typically represent bold letters
and digits underlined, or stroked using a different color ink.

Other representations of Algol 68 are intended to be automatically
processed by a computer.  These representations are called
@dfn{hardware languages}.  Sometimes the hardware languages are also
intended to be written and read by programmers; these are called
@dfn{programming languages}.

Unfortunately, computer systems today usually do not yet provide
readily usable and ergonomic bold or underline alphanumeric marks,
despite the existence of Unicode and modern and sophisticated editing
environments.  The lack of appropriate input methods surely plays a
role to explain this.  Thus, the programming representation languages
of Algol 68 should resort to a technique known as @dfn{stropping} in
order to differentiate bold letters and digits from non-bold letters
and digits.  The set of rules specifying the representation of these
characters is called a @dfn{stropping regime}.

There are three classical stropping regimes for Algol 68, which are
standardized and specified in the Standard Hardware Representation
normative document.  These are @dfn{POINT stropping}, @dfn{RES
stropping} and @dfn{UPPER stropping}.  The following sections do a
cursory tour over them; for more details the reader is referred to the
Standard Hardware Representation.

This compiler implements UPPER stropping and SUPPER stropping.

@menu
* POINT stropping::
* RES stropping::
* UPPER stropping::
* SUPPER stropping::
@end menu

@node POINT stropping
@subsection POINT stropping

POINT stropping is in a way the most fundamental of the three standard
regimes.  It was designed to work in installations with limited
character sets that provide only one alphabet, one set of digits, and
a very restricted set of other symbols.

In POINT stropping a bold word is represented by its constituent
letters and digits preceded by a point character.  For example, the
symbol @code{bold begin symbol} in the strict language, which is
represented as @strong{begin} in bold face in the reference language,
would be represented as @code{.BEGIN} in POINT stropping.

More examples are summarized in the following table.

@multitable @columnfractions .33 .33 .33
@headitem Strict language @tab Reference language @tab POINT stropping
@item @code{true symbol} @tab @strong{true} @tab @code{.TRUE}
@item @code{false symbol} @tab @strong{false} @tab @code{.FALSE}
@item @code{integral symbol} @tab @strong{int} @tab @code{.INT}
@item @code{completion symbol} @tab @strong{exit} @tab @code{.EXIT}
@item @code{bold-letter-c-...} @tab @strong{crc32} @tab @code{.CRC32}
@end multitable

In POINT stropping a tag is represented by writing its constituent
non-bold letters and digits in order.  But they are organized in
several @dfn{taggles}.

Each taggle is a sequence of one or more letters and digits,
optionally followed by an underscore character.  For example, the tag
@code{PRINT} is composed of a single taggle, but the tag
@code{PRINT_TABLE} is composed of a first taggle @code{PRINT_}
followed by a second taggle @code{TABLE}.

To improve readability it is possible to insert zero or more white
space characters between the taggles in a tag.  Therefore, the tag
@code{PRINT_TABLE} could have been written @code{PRINT TABLE}, or even
@code{PRINT_ TABLE}.  This is the reason why Algol 68 identifiers,
labels and field selectors can and do usually feature white spaces in
them.

It is important to note that both the trailing underscore characters
in taggles and the white spaces in a tag do not contribute anything to
the denoted tag: these are just stropping artifacts aimed to improve
readability.  Therefore @code{FOOBAR} @code{FOO BAR}, @code{FOO_BAR}
and @code{FOO_BAR_} are all representations of the same tag, that
represents the
@code{letter-f-letter-o-letter-o-letter-b-letter-a-letter-r} language
construct.

Below is the text of an example Algol 68 procedure encoded in POINT
stropping.

@example
.PROC RECSEL OUTPUT RECORDS = .VOID:
.BEGIN .BITS FLAGS
         := (INCLUDE DESCRIPTORS | REC F DESCRIPTOR | REC F NONE);
       .RECRSET RES = REC DB QUERY (DB, RECUTL TYPE,
                                    RECUTL QUICK, FLAGS);
       .RECWRITER WRITER := REC WRITER FILE NEW (STDOUT);

       SKIP COMMENTS .OF WRITER := .TRUE;
       .IF RECUTL PRINT SEXPS
       .THEN MODE .OF WRITER := REC WRITER SEXP .FI;
       REC WRITE (WRITER, RES)
.END
@end example

@node RES stropping
@subsection RES stropping

The early installations where Algol 68 ran not only featured a very
restricted character set, but also suffered from limited storage and
complex to use and time consuming input methods such as card punchers
and readers.  It was important for the representation of programs to
be as compact as possible.

It is likely that is what motivated the introduction of the RES
stropping regime.  As its name implies, it removes the need of
stropping many bold words by introducing @dfn{reserved words}.

A @dfn{reserved word} is one of the bold words specified in the
section 9.4.1 of the Report as a representation of some symbol.
Examples are @strong{at}, @strong{begin}, @strong{if}, @strong{int}
and @strong{real}.

RES stropping encodes bold words and tags like POINT stropping, but if
a bold word is a reserved word then it can then be written without a
preceding point, achieving this way a more compact, and easier to
read, representation for programs.

Introducing reserved words has the obvious disadvantage that some tags
cannot be written the obvious way due to the possibility of conflicts.
For example, to represent a tag @code{if} it is not possible to just
write @code{IF}, because it conflicts with a reserved word, but this
can be overcome easily (if not elegantly) by writing @code{IF_}
instead.

Below is the @code{recsel output records} procedure again, this time
encoded in RES stropping.

@example
PROC RECSEL OUTPUT RECORDS = VOID:
BEGIN BITS FLAGS
         := (INCLUDE DESCRIPTORS | REC F DESCRIPTOR | REC F NONE);
      .RECRSET RES = REC DB QUERY (DB, RECUTL TYPE,
                                   RECUTL QUICK, FLAGS);
      .RECWRITER WRITER := REC WRITER FILE NEW (STDOUT);

      SKIP COMMENTS OF WRITER := TRUE;
      IF RECUTL PRINT SEXPS
      THEN MODE .OF WRITER := REC WRITER SEXP FI;
      REC WRITE (WRITER, RES)
END
@end example

Note how user-defined mode an operator indications still require
explicit stropping.

@node UPPER stropping
@subsection UPPER stropping

In time computers added support for more than one alphabet by
introducing character sets with both upper and lower case letters,
along with convenient ways to both input and display these.

In UPPER stropping the bold letters in bold word are represented by
upper-case letters, whereas the letters in tags are represented by
lower-case letters.

The notions of upper- and lower-case are not applicable to digits, but
since the language syntax assures that it is not possible to have a
bold word that starts with a digit, digits are considered to be bold
if they follow a bold letter or another bold digit.

Below is the @code{recsel output records} procedure again, this time
encoded in UPPER stropping.

@example
PROC recsel output records = VOID:
BEGIN BITS flags
         := (include descriptors | rec f descriptor | rec f none);
      RECRSET res = rec db query (db, recutl type,
                                  recutl quick, flags);
      RECWRITER writer := rec writer file new (stdout);

      skip comments of writer := TRUE;
      IF recutl print sexps
      THEN mode OF writer := rec writer sexp FI;
      rec write (writer, res)
END
@end example

Note how in this regime it is almost never necessary to introduce bold
tags with points.  All in all, it looks much more natural to
contemporary readers.  UPPER stropping is in fact the stropping regime
of choice today.  It is difficult to think of any reason why anyone
would resort to use POINT or RES stropping.

@node SUPPER stropping
@subsection SUPPER stropping

In the SUPPER stropping regime bold words are written by writing a
sequence of one or more @dfn{taggles}. Each taggle is written by
writing a letter followed by zero or more other letters and digits and
is optionally followed by a trailing underscore character.  The first
letter in a bold word shall be an upper-case letter.  The rest of the
letters in the bold word may be either upper- or lower-case.

For example, @code{RecRset}, @code{Rec_Rset} and @code{RECRset} are
all different ways to represent the same mode indication.  This allows
to recreate popular naming conventions such as @code{CamelCase}.

As in the other stropping regimes, the casing of the letters and the
underscore characters are not really part of the mode or operator
indication.

Operator indications are also bold words and are written in exactly
the same way than mode indications, but it is usually better to always
use upper-case letters in operator indications.  On one side, it looks
better, especially in the case of dyadic operators where the asymmetry
of, for example @code{Equal} would look odd, consider @code{m1 Equal
m2} as opposed to @code{m1 EQUAL m2}.  On the other side, tools like
editors can make use of this convention in order to highlight operator
indications differently than mode indications.

In the SUPPER stropping regime tags are written by writing a sequence
of one or more @dfn{taggles}.  Each taggle is written by writing a
letter followed by zero or more other letters and digits and is
optionally followed by a trailing underscore character.  All letters
in a tag shall be lower-case letters.

For example, the identifier @code{list} is represented by a single
taggle, and it is composed by the letters @code{l}, @code{i}, @code{s}
and @code{t}, in order.  In the jargon of the strict language we would
spell the tag as @code{letter-l-letter-i-letter-s-letter-t}.

The label @code{found_zero} is represented by two taggles,
@code{found_} and @code{zero}, and it is composed by the letters
@code{f}, @code{o}, @code{u}, @code{n}, @code{d}, @code{z}, @code{e},
@code{r} and @code{o}, in order.  In the jargon of the strict language
we would spell the tag as @code{letter-f-letter-o-letter-u-letter-n
-letter-d-letter-z-letter-e-letter-r-letter-o}.

The identifier @code{crc_32} is likewise represented by two taggles,
@code{crc_} and @code{32}.  Note how the second taggle contains only
digits.  In the jargon of the strict language we would spell the tag
as @code{letter-c-letter-r-letter-c-digit-three-digit-two}.

The underscore characters are not really part of the tag, but part of
the stropping.  For example, both @code{goto found_zero} and
@code{goto foundzero} jump to the same label.

In general, typographical display features are allowed between any
symbol in the written program.  In SUPPER stropping, however, it is
not allowed to place spaces or tab characters between the constituent
digits of bits denotations when the radix is 16.  This is to avoid
confusing situations like the following invalid program:

@example
@B{while} bitmask /= 16r0 @B{do} ~ @B{od}
@end example

@noindent
Where the bits denotation would be interpreted as @code{16r0d} rather
than @code{16r0}, leading to a syntax error.  Note however that
typographical display features are still allowed between the radix
part and the digits, so @code{16r aabb} is valid also in SUPPER
stropping.

The @code{recsel output records} procedure, encoded in SUPPER
stropping, looks like below.

@example
proc recsel_output_records = void:
begin bits flags
        := (include_descriptors | rec_f_descriptor | rec_f_none);
      RecRset res = rec_db_query (db, recutl_type,
                                  recutl_uick, flags);
      RecWriter writer := rec_writer_file_new (stdout);

      skip_comments of writer := true;
      if recutl_print_sexps
      then mode_ of writer := rec_writer_sexp fi;
      rec_write (writer, res)
end
@end example

@node Monads and Nomads
@section Monads and Nomads
@cindex monads
@cindex nomads

Algol68 operators, be them predefined or defined by the programmer,
can be referred via either bold tags or sequences of certain
non-alphabetic symbols.  For example, the dyadic operator @code{+} is
defined for many modes to perform addition, the monadic operator
@code{@B{entier}} gets a real value and rounds it to an integral
value, and the operator @code{:=:} is the identity relation.  Many
operators provide both bold tag names and symbols names, like in the
case of @code{:/=:} that can also be written as @code{@B{isnt}}.

Bold tags are lexically well delimited, and if the same tag is used to
refer to a monadic operator and to a dyadic operator, no ambiguity can
arise.  For example, in the following program it is clear that the
second instance of @code{@B{plus}} refers to the monadic operator, and
the first instance refers to the dyadic operator@footnote{If one would
write @code{@B{plusplus}}, it would be a third different bold tag.}.

@example
@B{op} @B{PLUS} = (@B{int} a, b) @B{int}: a + b,
   @B{PLUS} = (@B{int} a): a;
@B{int} val = 2 @B{PLUS} @B{PLUS} 3;
@end example

On the other hand, symbols are not lexically delimited as words, and
one symbol can appear immediately following another symbol.  This can
lead to ambiguities.  For example, if we were to define a C-like
monadic operator @code{++} like:

@example
@B{op} ++ = (@B{ref} @B{int} a) @B{int}: (@B{int} t = a; a +:=1; t);
@end example

@noindent
Then the expression @code{++a} would be ambiguous: is it @code{++a} or
@code{+(+a)}?.  In a similar way, if we would use @code{++} as the
name of a dyadic operator, an expression like @code{a++b} could be
also interpreted as both @code{a++b} and @code{a+(+b)}.

To avoid these problems Algol 68 divides the symbols which are
suitable to appear in the name of an operator into two classes: monads
and nomads.  @dfn{Monads} are symbols that can be used as monadic
operators.  @dfn{Nomads} are symbols which can be used as both monadic
or dyadic operators.  Given these two sets, the rules to conform a
valid operator are:

@itemize @minus
@item A bold tag.
@item Any monad.
@item A monad followed by a nomad.
@item A monad optionally followed by a nomad followed by either @code{:=} or @code{=:}, but not by both.
@end itemize

@noindent
In the GNU Algol 68 compiler:

@itemize @minus
@item The set of monads is @code{%^&+-~!?}.
@item The set of nomads is @code{></=*}.
@end itemize

@node String breaks
@section String breaks

The intrinsic value of each worthy character that appears inside a
string denotation is itself.  The string @code{"/abc"}, therefore,
contains a slash character followed by the three letters @code{a},
@code{b} and @code{c}.

Sometimes, however, it becomes necessary to represent some non-worthy
character in a string denotation.  In these cases, an escape
convention has to be used to represent these extra string-items.  It
is up to the implementation to decide this convention, and the only
requirement imposed by the Standard Hardware Representation on this
regard is that the character used to introduce escapes, the
@dfn{escape character}, shall be the apostrophe.  This section
documents the escape conventions implemented by the GNU compiler.

Two characters have special meaning inside string denotations: double
quote (@code{"}) and apostrophe (@code{'}).  The first finishes the
string denotation, and the second starts a @dfn{string break}, which
is the Algol 68 term for what is known as an ``escape sequence'' in
other programming languages.  Two consecutive double-quote characters
specify a single double-quote character.

The following string breaks are recognized by this compiler:

@table @code
@item ''
Apostrophe character @code{'}.
@item 'n
Newline character.
@item 'f
Form feed character.
@item 'r
Carriage return (no line feed).
@item 't
Tab.
@item '(list of character codes separated by commas)
The indicated characters, where each code has the form @code{uhhhh} or
@code{Uhhhhhhhh}, where @code{hhhh} and @code{hhhhhhhh} are integers
expressing the character code in hexadecimal.  The list must contain
at least one entry.
@end table

A string break can appear as the single string-item in a character
denotation, subject to the following restrictions:

@itemize @bullet
@item
List of characters string breaks @code{'(...)} that contain more than
one character code are not allowed in character denotations.  If the
specified code point is not a valid Unicode character then a
compilation error shall be raised.
@end itemize

@node Standard prelude
@chapter Standard prelude
@cindex prelude, standard

The Algol 68 Revised Report defines an extensive set of standard
modes, operators, procedures and values, collectively known as the
@dfn{standard prelude}.

The standard prelude is available to Algol 68 programs without needing
to import any module.

For brevity, in this section the pseudo-mode @code{@B{L}} represents a
@dfn{shortsety}, i.e. a sequence of either zero or more
@code{@B{LONG}} or zero or more @code{@B{SHORT}}.

@menu
* Environment enquiries::              Information about the implementation.
* Standard modes::                     Modes defined by the standard prelude.
* Standard priorities::                Priorities of all standard operators.
* Rows operators::                     Rows and associated operations.
* Boolean operators::                  Operations on boolean operands.
* Integral operators::                 Operations on integral operands.
* Real operators::                     Operations on real operands.
* Character operators::                Operations on character operands.
* String operators::                   Strings and associated operations.
* Complex operators::                  Operations on complex operands.
* Bits operators::                     Bits and associated operations.
* Bytes operators::                    Bytes and associated operations.
* Semaphore operators::                Synchronization operations.
* Math procedures::                    Standard mathematical constants and functions.
@end menu

@node Environment enquiries
@section Environment enquiries

An @dfn{environment enquiry} is a constant or a procedure, whose
elaboration yields a value that may be useful to the programmer, that
reflects some characteristic of the particular implementation.  The
values of these enquiries are also determined by the architecture and
operating system targeted by the compiler.

@deftypevr Constant @B{int} {int lengths}
1 plus the number of extra lenghts of integers which are meaningful.
@end deftypevr

@deftypevr Constant @B{int} {int shorths}
1 plus the number of extra shorths of integers which are meaningful.
@end deftypevr

@deftypevr Constant {@B{l} @B{int}} {L max int}
The largest integral value.
@end deftypevr

@deftypevr Constant @B{int} {real lengths}
1 plus the number of extra lenghts of real numbers which are
meaningful.
@end deftypevr

@deftypevr Constant @B{int} {real shorths}
1 plus the number of extra shorths of real numbers which are
meaningful.
@end deftypevr

@deftypevr Constant {@B{l} @B{real}} {L max real}
The largest real value.
@end deftypevr

@deftypevr Constant {@B{l} @B{real}} {L small real}
The smallest real value such that both @code{1 + small real > 1} and
@code{1 - small real < 1}.
@end deftypevr

@deftypevr Constant @B{int} {bits lengths}
1 plus the number of extra widths of bits which are meaningful.
@end deftypevr

@deftypevr Constant @B{int} {bits shorths}
1 plus the number of extra shorths of bits which are meaningful.
@end deftypevr

@deftypevr Constant @B{int} {bits width}
@deftypevrx Constant @B{int} {long bits width}
@deftypevrx Constant @B{int} {long long bits width}
The number of bits in a @code{@B{bits}} value.
@end deftypevr

@deftypevr Constant @B{int} {bytes lengths}
1 plus the number of extra widths of bytes which are meaningful.
@end deftypevr

@deftypevr Constant @B{int} {bytes shorths}
1 plus the number of extra shorths of bytes which are meaningful.
@end deftypevr

@deftypevr Constant @B{int} {bytes width}
@deftypevrx Constant @B{int} {long bytes width}
@deftypevrx Constant @B{int} {long long bytes width}
The number of chars in a @code{@B{bytes}} value.
@end deftypevr

@deftypevr Constant @B{int} {max abs char}
The largest value which @code{@B{abs}} of a @code{@B{char}} can yield.
@end deftypevr

@deftypevr Constant @B{char} {null character}
Some character.
@end deftypevr

@deftypevr Constant @B{char} flip
@deftypevrx Constant @B{char} flop
Characters used to represent @code{@B{true}} and @code{@B{false}}
boolean values in textual transput.
@end deftypevr

@deftypevr Constant @B{char} {error char}
Character used to represent the digit of a value resulting from a
conversion error in textual transput.
@end deftypevr

@deftypevr Constant @B{char} blank
The space character.
@end deftypevr

@deftypevr Constant {@B{l} @B{real}} {L pi}
The number pi.
@end deftypevr

@node Standard modes
@section Standard modes

@deftp Mode @B{void}
The only value of this mode is @code{@B{empty}}.
@end deftp

@deftp Mode @B{bool}
Mode for the boolean truth values @code{@B{true}} and @code{@B{false}}.
@end deftp

@deftp Mode {@B{l} @B{int}}
Modes for signed integral values.  Each @code{@B{long}} or
@code{@B{short}} may increase or decrease the range of the domain,
depending on the characteristics of the current target.  Further
@code{@B{long}}s and @code{@B{short}}s may be specified with no
effect.
@end deftp

@deftp Mode {@B{l} @B{real}}
Modes for signed real values.  Each @code{@B{long}} may increase the
upper range of the domain, depending on the characteristics of the
current target.  Further @code{@B{long}}s may be specified but with no
effect.
@end deftp

@deftp Mode @B{char}
Mode for character values.  The character values are mapped one-to-one
to code points in the 21-bit space of Unicode.
@end deftp

@deftp Mode @B{string} {= @B{flex}[1:0]@B{char}}
Mode for sequences of characters.  This is implemented as a flexible
row of @code{@B{char}} values.
@end deftp

@deftp Mode {@B{l} @B{compl}} {= @B{struct} (@B{real} re,im)}
Modes for complex values.  Each @code{@B{long}} may increase the
precision of both the real and imaginary parts of the numbers,
depending on the characteristics of the current target.  Further
@code{@B{long}}s may be specified with no effect.
@end deftp

@deftp Mode {@B{l} @B{bits}}
Compact and efficient representation of a row of boolean values.  Each
@code{@B{long}} may increase the number of booleans that can be packed
in a bits, depending on the characteristics of the current target.
@end deftp

@deftp Mode {@B{l} @B{bytes}}
Compact and efficient representation of a row of character values.
Each @code{@B{long}} may increase the number of characters that can be
packed in a bytes, depending on the characteristics of the current
target.
@end deftp

@node Standard priorities
@section Standard priorities

@table @code
@item 1
@itemize @bullet
@item @code{plusab}, @code{+:=}
@item @code{minusab}, @code{-:=}
@item @code{timesab}, @code{*:=}
@item @code{divab}, @code{/:=}
@item @code{overab}, @code{%:=}
@item @code{modab}, @code{%*:=}
@item @code{plusto}, @code{+=:}
@end itemize

@item 2
@itemize @bullet
@item @code{or}
@end itemize

@item 3
@itemize @bullet
@item @code{and}
@item @code{xor}
@end itemize

@item 4
@itemize @bullet
@item @code{@B{eq}}, @code{=}
@item @code{@B{ne}}, @code{/=}
@end itemize

@item  5
@itemize @bullet
@item @code{@B{lt}}, @code{<},
@item @code{@B{le}}, @code{<=}
@item @code{@B{gt}}, @code{>}
@item @code{@B{ge}}, @code{>=}
@end itemize

@item 6
@itemize @bullet
@item @code{+}
@item @code{-}
@end itemize

@item 7
@itemize @bullet
@item @code{*}
@item @code{/}
@item @code{@B{over}}, @code{%}
@item @code{@B{mod}}, @code{%*}
@item @code{@B{elem}}
@end itemize

@item 8
@itemize @bullet
@item @code{**}
@item @code{@B{shl}}, @code{@B{up}}
@item @code{@B{shr}}, @code{@B{down}}
@item @code{@B{up}}, @code{@B{down}}
@item @code{^}
@item @code{@B{lwb}}
@item @code{@B{upb}}
@end itemize

@item 9
@itemize @bullet
@item @code{@B{i}}
@item @code{+*}
@end itemize
@end table

@node Rows operators
@section Rows operators

The following operators work on any row mode, denoted below using the
pseudo-mode @code{@B{rows}}.

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{lwb}} {= (@B{rows} a) @B{int}}
Monadic operator that yields the lower bound of the first bound pair
of the descriptor of the value of @code{a}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{upb}} {= (@B{rows} a) @B{int}}
Monadic operator that yields the upper bound of the first bound pair
of the descriptor of the value of @code{a}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{lwb}} {= (@B{int} n, @B{rows} a) @B{int}}
Dyadic operator that yields the lower bound in the n-th bound pair of
the descriptor of the value of @code{a}, if that bound pair exists.
Attempting to access a non-existing bound pair results in a run-time
error.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{upb}} {= (@B{int} n, @B{rows} a) @B{int}}
Dyadic operator that yields the upper bound in the n-th bound pair of
the descriptor of the value of @code{a}, if that bound pair exists.
Attempting to access a non-existing bound pair results in a run-time
error.
@end deftypefn

@node Boolean operators
@section Boolean operators

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{not}} {= (@B{bool} a) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {~} {= (@B{bool} a) @B{bool}}
Monadic operator that yields the logical negation of its operand.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{or}} {= (@B{bool} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields the logical ``or'' of its operands.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{and}} {= (@B{bool} a, b) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {@B{&}} {= (@B{bool} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields the logical ``and'' of its operands.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{eq}} {= (@B{bool} a, b) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {=} {= (@B{bool} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields @code{@B{true}} if its operands are the
same truth value, @code{@B{false}} otherwise.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{ne}} {= (@B{bool} a, b) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {/=} {= (@B{bool} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields @code{@B{false}} if its operands are the
same truth value, @code{@B{true}} otherwise.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{abs}} {= (@B{bool} a) @B{int}}
Monadic operator that yields 1 if its operand is @code{@B{true}}, and
0 if its operand is @code{@B{false}}.
@end deftypefn

@node Integral operators
@section Integral operators

@subsection Arithmetic

@deftypefn Operator {} {+} {= (@B{l} @B{int} a) @B{l} @B{int}}
Monadic operator that yields the affirmation of its operand.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {-} {= (@B{l} @B{int} a) @B{l} @B{int}}
Monadic operator that yields the negative of its operand.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{abs}} {= (@B{l} @B{int} a) @B{l} @B{int}}
Monadic operator that yields the absolute value of its operand.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{sign}} {= (@B{l} @B{int} a) @B{int}}
Monadic operator that yields -1 if @code{a} if negative, 0 if @code{a}
is zero and 1 if @code{a} is positive.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{odd}} {= (@B{l} @B{int} a) @B{bool}}
Monadic operator that yields @code{@B{true}} if its operand is odd,
@code{@B{false}} otherwise.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {+} {= (@B{l} @B{int} a, b) @B{l} @B{int}}
Dyadic operator that yields the addition of its operands.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {-} {= (@B{l} @B{int} a, b) @B{l} @B{int}}
Dyadic operator that yields @code{b} subtracted from @code{a}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {*} {= (@B{l} @B{int} a, b) @B{l} @B{int}}
Dyadic operator that yields the multiplication of its operands.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{over}} {= (@B{l} @B{int} a, b) @B{l} @B{int}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {%} {= (@B{l} @B{int} a, b) @B{l} @B{int}}
Dyadic operator that yields the integer division of @code{a} by
@code{b}, rounding the quotient toward zero.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{mod}} {= (@B{l} @B{int} a, b) @B{l} @B{int}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {%*} {= (@B{l} @B{int} a, b) @B{l} @B{int}}
Dyadic operator that yields the remainder of the division of @code{a}
by @code{b}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {/} {= (@B{l} @B{int} a, b) @B{l} @B{real}}
Dyadic operator that yields the integer division with real result of
@code{a} by @code{b}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {**} {= (@B{l} @B{int} a, b) @B{l} @B{int}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {^} {= (@B{l} @B{int} a, b) @B{l} @B{int}}
Dyadic operator that yields @code{a} raised to the exponent @code{b}.
@end deftypefn

@subsection Arithmetic combined with assignation

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{plusab}} {= (@B{ref} @B{l} @B{int} a, @B{l} @B{int} b) @B{ref} @B{l} @B{int}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {+:=} {= (@B{ref} @B{l} @B{int} a, @B{l} @B{int} b) @B{ref} @B{l} @B{int}}
@dfn{Plus and become}.  Dyadic operator that calculates @code{a + b},
assigns the result of the operation to the name @code{a} and then
yields @code{a}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{minusab}} {= (@B{ref} @B{l} @B{int} a, @B{l} @B{int} b) @B{ref} @B{l} @B{int}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {-:=} {= (@B{ref} @B{l} @B{int} a, @B{l} @B{int} b) @B{ref} @B{l} @B{int}}
Dyadic operator that calculates @code{a - b}, assigns the result of
the operation to the name @code{a} and then yields @code{a}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{timesab}} {= (@B{ref} @B{l} @B{int} a, @B{l} @B{int} b) @B{ref} @B{l} @B{int}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {*:=} {= (@B{ref} @B{l} @B{int} a, @B{l} @B{int} b) @B{ref} @B{l} @B{int}}
Dyadic operator that calculates @code{a * b}, assigns the result of
the operation to the name @code{a} and then yields @code{a}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{overab}} {= (@B{ref} @B{l} @B{int} a, @B{l} @B{int} b) @B{ref} @B{l} @B{int}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {%:=} {= (@B{ref} @B{l} @B{int} a, @B{l} @B{int} b) @B{ref} @B{l} @B{int}}
Dyadic operator that calculates @code{a % b}, assigns the result of
the operation to the name @code{a} and then yields @code{a}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{modab}} {= (@B{ref} @B{l} @B{int} a, @B{l} @B{int} b) @B{ref} @B{l} @B{int}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {%*:=} {= (@B{ref} @B{l} @B{int} a, @B{l} @B{int} b) @B{ref} @B{l} @B{int}}
Dyadic operator that calculates @code{a %* b}, assigns the result of
the operation to the name @code{a} and then yields @code{a}.
@end deftypefn

@subsection Relational

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{eq}} {= (@B{l} @B{int} a, b) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {=} {= (@B{l} @B{int} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields whether its operands are equal.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{ne}} {= (@B{l} @B{int} a, b) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {/=} {= (@B{l} @B{int} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields whether its operands are not equal.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{lt}} {= (@B{l} @B{int} a, b) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {<} {= (@B{l} @B{int} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields whether @code{a} is less than @code{b}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{le}} {= (@B{l} @B{int} a, b) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {<=} {= (@B{l} @B{int} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields whether @code{a} is less than, or equal to
@code{b}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{gt}} {= (@B{l} @B{int} a, b) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {>} {= (@B{l} @B{int} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields whether @code{a} is greater than
@code{b}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{ge}} {= (@B{l} @B{int} a, b) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {>=} {= (@B{l} @B{int} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields whether @code{a} is greater than, or equal
to @code{b}.
@end deftypefn

@subsection Conversion

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{shorten}} {= (@B{short} @B{int} a) @B{short} @B{short} @B{int}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {@B{shorten}} {= (@B{int} a) @B{short} @B{int}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {@B{shorten}} {= (@B{long} @B{int} a) @B{int}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {@B{shorten}} {= (@B{long} @B{long} @B{int} a) @B{long} @B{int}}
Monadic operator that yields, if it exists, the integral value that
can be lengthened to the value of @code{a}.  If the value doesn't
exist then the operator yields either the most positive integral value
in the destination mode, if @code{a} is bigger than that value, or the
most negative integral value in the destination mode, if @code{a} is
smaller than that value.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{leng}} {= (@B{short} @B{short} @B{int} a) @B{short} @B{int}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {@B{leng}} {= (@B{short} @B{int} a) @B{int}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {@B{leng}} {= (@B{int} a) @B{long} @B{int}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {@B{leng}} {= (@B{long} @B{int} a) @B{long} @B{long} @B{int}}
Monadic operator that yields the integral value lengthened from the
value of @code{a}.
@end deftypefn

@node Real operators
@section Real operators

@subsection Arithmetic

@deftypefn Operator {} {+} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a) @B{l} @B{real}}
Monadic operator that yields the affirmation of its operand.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {-} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a) @B{l} @B{real}}
Monadic operator that yields the negative of its operand.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{abs}} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a) @B{l} @B{real}}
Monadic operator that yields the absolute value of its operand.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{sign}} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a) @B{int}}
Monadic operator that yields -1 if @code{a} if negative, 0 if @code{a}
is zero and 1 if @code{a} is positive.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {+} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a, b) @B{l} @B{real}}
Dyadic operator that yields the addition of its operands.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {-} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a, b) @B{l} @B{real}}
Dyadic operator that yields @code{b} subtracted from @code{a}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {*} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a, b) @B{l} @B{real}}
Dyadic operator that yields the multiplication of its operands.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {/} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a, b) @B{l} @B{real}}
Dyadic operator that yields the realeger division with real result of
@code{a} by @code{b}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {**} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a, b) @B{l} @B{real}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {^} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a, b) @B{l} @B{real}}
Dyadic operator that yields @code{a} raised to the real exponent @code{b}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {**} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a, @B{int} b) @B{l} @B{real}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {^} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a, @B{int} b) @B{l} @B{real}}
Dyadic operator that yields @code{a} raised to the integral exponent
@code{b}.
@end deftypefn

@subsection Arithmetic combined with assignation

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{plusab}} {= (@B{ref} @B{l} @B{real} a, @B{l} @B{real} b) @B{ref} @B{l} @B{real}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {+:=} {= (@B{ref} @B{l} @B{real} a, @B{l} @B{real} b) @B{ref} @B{l} @B{real}}
@dfn{Plus and become}.  Dyadic operator that calculates @code{a + b},
assigns the result of the operation to the name @code{a} and then
yields @code{a}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{minusab}} {= (@B{ref} @B{l} @B{real} a, @B{l} @B{real} b) @B{ref} @B{l} @B{real}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {-:=} {= (@B{ref} @B{l} @B{real} a, @B{l} @B{real} b) @B{ref} @B{l} @B{real}}
Dyadic operator that calculates @code{a - b}, assigns the result of
the operation to the name @code{a} and then yields @code{a}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{timesab}} {= (@B{ref} @B{l} @B{real} a, @B{l} @B{real} b) @B{ref} @B{l} @B{real}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {*:=} {= (@B{ref} @B{l} @B{real} a, @B{l} @B{real} b) @B{ref} @B{l} @B{real}}
Dyadic operator that calculates @code{a * b}, assigns the result of
the operation to the name @code{a} and then yields @code{a}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{divab}} {= (@B{ref} @B{l} @B{real} a, @B{l} @B{real} b) @B{ref} @B{l} @B{real}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {/:=} {= (@B{ref} @B{l} @B{real} a, @B{l} @B{real} b) @B{ref} @B{l} @B{real}}
Dyadic operator that calculates @code{a / b}, assigns the result of
the operation to the name @code{a} and then yields @code{a}.
@end deftypefn

@subsection Relational

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{eq}} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a, b) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {=} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields whether its operands are equal.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{ne}} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a, b) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {/=} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields whether its operands are not equal.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{lt}} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a, b) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {<} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields whether @code{a} is less than @code{b}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{le}} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a, b) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {<=} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields whether @code{a} is less than, or equal to
@code{b}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{gt}} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a, b) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {>} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields whether @code{a} is greater than
@code{b}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{ge}} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a, b) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {>=} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields whether @code{a} is greater than, or equal
to @code{b}.
@end deftypefn

@subsection Conversions

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{round}} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a) @B{int}}
Monadic operator that yields the nearest integer to its operand.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{entier}} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a) @B{int}}
Monadic operator that yields the integer equal to @code{a}, or the
next integer below (more negative than) @code{a}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{shorten}} {= (@B{long} @B{real} a) @B{real}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {@B{shorten}} {= (@B{long} @B{long} @B{real} a) @B{long} @B{real}}
Monadic operator that yields, if it exists, the real value that
can be lengthened to the value of @code{a}.  If the value doesn't
exist then the operator yields either the most positive real value
in the destination mode, if @code{a} is bigger than that value, or the
most negative real value in the destination mode, if @code{a} is
smaller than that value.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{leng}} {= (@B{real} a) @B{long} @B{real}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {@B{leng}} {= (@B{long} @B{real} a) @B{long} @B{long} @B{real}}
Monadic operator that yields the real value lengthened from the
value of @code{a}.
@end deftypefn

@node Character operators
@section Character operators

@subsection Relational

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{eq}} {= (@B{char} a, b) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {=} {= (@B{char} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields whether its operands are equal.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{ne}} {= (@B{char} a, b) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {/=} {= (@B{char} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields whether its operands are not equal.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{lt}} {= (@B{char} a, b) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {<} {= (@B{char} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields whether @code{a} is less than @code{b}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{le}} {= (@B{char} a, b) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {<=} {= (@B{char} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields whether @code{a} is less than, or equal to
@code{b}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{gt}} {= (@B{char} a, b) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {>} {= (@B{char} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields whether @code{a} is greater than @code{b}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{ge}} {= (@B{char} a, b) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {>=} {= (@B{char} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields whether @code{a} is greater than, or equal
to @code{b}.
@end deftypefn

@subsection Conversions

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{ABS}} {= (@B{char} a) @B{int}}
Monadic operator that yields an unique integer for each permissable
value of @code{@B{char}}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{REPR}} {= (@B{int} a) @B{char}}
The opposite of @code{@B{abs}} of a character.
@end deftypefn

@node String operators
@section String operators

@subsection Relational

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{eq}} {= (@B{string} a, b) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {=} {= (@B{string} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields whether its operands are equal.  Two
strings are equal if they contain the same sequence of characters.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{ne}} {= (@B{string} a, b) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {/=} {= (@B{string} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields whether its operands are not equal.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{lt}} {= (@B{string} a, b) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {<} {= (@B{string} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields whether the string @code{a} is less than
the string @code{b}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{le}} {= (@B{string} a, b) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {<=} {= (@B{string} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields whether the string @code{a} is less than,
or equal to string @code{b}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{gt}} {= (@B{string} a, b) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {>} {= (@B{string} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields whether the string @code{a} is greater
than the string @code{b}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{ge}} {= (@B{string} a, b) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {>=} {= (@B{string} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields whether the string @code{a} is greater
than, or equal to the string @code{b}.
@end deftypefn

@subsection Composition

@deftypefn Operator {} {+} {= (@B{string} a, b) @B{string}}
Dyadic operator that yields the concatenation of the two given
strings as a new string.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {+} {= (@B{string} a, @B{char} b) @B{string}}
Dyadic operator that yields the concatenation of the given string
@code{a} and a string whose contents are the character @code{b}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {*} (= (@B{int} a, @B{string} b) @B{string})
@deftypefnx Operator {} {*} (= (@B{string} b, @B{int} a) @B{string})
Dyadic operator that yields the string @code{a} concatenated @code{a}
times to itself.  If @code{a} is less than zero then it is interpreted
to be zero.
@end deftypefn

@subsection Composition combined with assignation

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{plusab}} {= (@B{ref} @B{string} a, @B{string} b) @B{ref} @B{string}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {+:=} {= (@B{ref} @B{string} a, @B{string} b) @B{ref} @B{string}}
@dfn{Plus and become}.  Dyadic operator that calculates @code{a + b},
assigns the result of the operation to the name @code{a} and then
yields @code{a}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{plusto}} {= (@B{string} b, @B{ref} @B{string} a) @B{ref} @B{string}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {+=:} {= (@B{string} b, @B{ref} @B{string} b) @B{ref} @B{string}}
Dyadic operator that calculates @code{a + b}, assigns the result of
the operation to the name @code{a} and then yields @code{a}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{timesab}} {= (@B{ref} @B{string} a, @B{string} b) @B{ref} @B{string}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {*:=} {= (@B{ref} @B{string} a, @B{string} b) @B{ref} @B{stringl}}
@dfn{Plus and become}.  Dyadic operator that calculates @code{a * b},
assigns the result of the operation to the name @code{a} and then
yields @code{a}.
@end deftypefn

@node Complex operators
@section Complex operators

@node Bits operators
@section Bits operators

@subsection Logical

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{NOT}} {= (@B{l} @B{bits} a, b) @B{l} @B{bits}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {~} {= (@B{l} @B{bits} a, b) @B{l} @B{bits}}
Monadic operator that yields the element-wise not logical operation in
the elements of the given bits operand.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{AND}} {= (@B{l} @B{bits} a, b) @B{l} @B{bits}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {&} {= (@B{l} @B{bits} a, b) @B{l} @B{bits}}
Dyadic operator that yields the element-wise and logical operation in
the elements of the given bits operands.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{OR}} {= (@B{l} @B{bits} a, b) @B{l} @B{bits}}
Dyadic operator that yields the element-wise ``or'' logical operation
in the elements of the given bits operands.
@end deftypefn

@subsection Shifting

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{SHL}} {= (@B{l} @B{bits} a, @B{int} n) @B{l} @B{bits}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {@B{UP}} {= (@B{l} @B{bits} a, @B{int} n) @B{l} @B{bits}}
Dyadic operator that yields the given bits operand shifted @code{n}
positions to the left.  Extra elements introduced on the right are
initialized to @code{@B{false}}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{SHR}} {= (@B{l} @B{bits} a, @B{int} n) @B{l} @B{bits}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {@B{DOWN}} {= (@B{l} @B{bits} a, @B{int} n) @B{l} @B{bits}}
Dyadic operator that yields the given bits operand shifted @code{n}
positions to the right.  Extra elements introduced on the left are
initialized to @code{@B{false}}.
@end deftypefn

@subsection Relational

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{eq}} {= (@B{l} @B{bits} a, b) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {=} {= (@B{l} @B{bits} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields whether its operands are equal.  Two
bits are equal if they contain the same sequence of booleans.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{ne}} {= (@B{l} @B{bits} a, b) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {/=} {= (@B{l} @B{bits} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields whether its operands are not equal.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{lt}} {= (@B{l} @B{bits} a, b) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {<} {= (@B{l} @B{bits} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields whether the bits @code{a} is less than
the bits @code{b}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{le}} {= (@B{l} @B{bits} a, b) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {<=} {= (@B{l} @B{bits} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields whether the bits @code{a} is less than,
or equal to bits @code{b}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{gt}} {= (@B{l} @B{bits} a, b) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {>} {= (@B{l} @B{bits} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields whether the bits @code{a} is greater than
the bits @code{b}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{ge}} {= (@B{l} @B{bits} a, b) @B{bool}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {>=} {= (@B{l} @B{bits} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields whether the bits @code{a} is greater
than, or equal to the bits @code{b}.
@end deftypefn

@subsection Conversions

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{abs}} {= (@B{l} @B{bits} a) @B{l} @B{int}}
Monadic operator that yields the integral value whose constituent bits
correspond to the booleans stored in @code{a}. @xref{@code{@B{bin}}
and @code{@B{abs}} of negative integral values}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{bin}} {= (@B{l} @B{int} a) @B{l} @B{bits}}
Monadic operator that yields the bits value whose boolean elements map
the bits in the given integral operand. @xref{@code{@B{bin}} and
@code{@B{abs}} of negative integral values}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{shorten}} {= (@B{long} @B{bits} a) @B{bits}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {@B{shorten}} {= (@B{long} @B{long} @B{bits} a) @B{long} @B{bits}}
Monadic operator that yields the bits value that can be lengthened to
the value of @code{a}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{leng}} {= (@B{bits} a) @B{long} @B{bits}}
@deftypefnx Operator {} {@B{leng}} {= (@B{long} @B{bits} a) @B{long} @B{long} @B{bits}}
Monadic operator that yields the bits value lengthened from the value
of @code{a}.  The lengthened value features @code{@B{false}} in the
extra left positions added to match the lengthened size.
@end deftypefn

@node Bytes operators
@section Bytes operators

@node Semaphore operators
@section Semaphore operators

@node Math procedures
@section Math procedures

@subsection Arithmetic

@deftypefn Procedure {} {@B{sqrt}} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a) @B{l} @B{real}}
Procedure that yields the square root of the given real argument.
@end deftypefn

@subsection Logarithms

@deftypefn Procedure {} {@B{ln}} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a) @B{l} @B{real}}
Procedure that yields the base @code{e} logarithm of the given real
argument.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Procedure {} {@B{exp}} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a) @B{l} @B{real}}
Procedure that yields the exponential function of the given real
argument.  This is the inverse of @code{@B{ln}}.
@end deftypefn

@subsection Trigonometric

@deftypefn Procedure {} {@B{sin}} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a) @B{l} @B{real}}
Procedure that yields the sin trigonometric function of the given real
argument.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Procedure {} {@B{arcsin}} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a) @B{l} @B{real}}
Procedure that yields the arc-sin trigonometric function of the given real
argument.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Procedure {} {@B{cos}} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a) @B{l} @B{real}}
Procedure that yields the cos trigonometric function of the given real
argument.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Procedure {} {@B{arccos}} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a) @B{l} @B{real}}
Procedure that yields the arc-cos trigonometric function of the given real
argument.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Procedure {} {@B{tan}} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a) @B{l} @B{real}}
Procedure that yields the tan trigonometric function of the given real
argument.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Procedure {} {@B{arctan}} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a) @B{l} @B{real}}
Procedure that yields the arc-tan trigonometric function of the given
real argument.
@end deftypefn

@node Extended prelude
@chapter Extended prelude
@cindex prelude, extended

This chapter documents the GNU extensions to the standard prelude.
The facilities documented below are available to Algol 68 programs
only if the @option{gnu68} language dialect is selected, which is the
default.

The extended prelude is available to Algol 68 programs without needing
to import any module, provided they are compiled as @code{gnu68} code,
which is the default.

@menu
* Extended priorities::                Priorities of extended operators.
* Extended environment enquiries::     Information about the implementation.
* Extended rows operators::            Rows and associated operations.
* Extended boolean operators::         Operations on boolean operands.
* Extended bits operators::            Bits and associated operations.
* Extended math procedures::           Mathematical constants and functions.
@end menu

@node Extended priorities
@section Extended priorities

@table @code
@item 3
@itemize @bullet
@item @code{@B{xor}}
@end itemize

@item 8
@itemize @bullet
@item @code{@B{elems}}
@end itemize
@end table

@node Extended environment enquiries
@section Extended environment enquiries

An @dfn{environment enquiry} is a constant, whose value may be useful
to the programmer, that reflects some characteristic of the particular
implementation.  The values of these enquiries are also determined by
the architecture and operating system targeted by the compiler.

@deftypevr Constant {@B{l} @B{int}} {L min int}
The most negative integral value.
@end deftypevr

@deftypevr Constant {@B{l} @B{real}} {L min real}
The most negative real value.
@end deftypevr

@deftypevr Constant {@B{l} @B{real}} {L infinity}
Positive infinity expressed in a real value.
@end deftypevr

@deftypevr Constant {@B{l} @B{real}} {L minus infinity}
Negative infinity expressed in a real value.
@end deftypevr

@deftypevr Constant @B{char} {replacement char}
A character that is unknown, unrecognizable or unrepresentable in
Unicode.
@end deftypevr

@deftypevr Constant @B{char} {eof char}
@B{char} value that doesn't denote an actual char, but an end-of-file
situation.
@end deftypevr

@node Extended rows operators
@section Extended rows operators

The following operators work on any row mode, denoted below using the
pseudo-mode @code{@B{rows}}.

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{elems}} {= (@B{rows} a) @B{int}}
Monadic operator that yields the number of elements implied by the
first bound pair of the descriptor of the value of @code{a}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{elems}} {= (@B{int} n, @B{rows} a) @B{int}}
Dyadic operator that yields the number of elements implied by the n-th
bound pair of the descriptor of the value of @code{a}.
@end deftypefn

@node Extended boolean operators
@section Extended boolean operators

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{xor}} {= (@B{bool} a, b) @B{bool}}
Dyadic operator that yields the exclusive-or operation of the given
boolean arguments.
@end deftypefn

@node Extended bits operators
@section Extended bits operators

@deftypefn Operator {} {@B{xor}} {= (@B{l} @B{bits} a, b) @B{l} @B{bits}}
Dyadic operator that yields the bit exclusive-or operation of the
given bits arguments.
@end deftypefn

@node Extended math procedures
@section Extended math procedures

@subsection Logarithms

@deftypefn Procedure {} {@B{log}} {= (@B{l} @B{real} a, b) @B{l} @B{real}}
Procedure that calculates the base ten logarithm of the given arguments.
@end deftypefn

@node POSIX prelude
@chapter POSIX prelude

The POSIX prelude provides facilities to perform simple transput (I/O)
based on POSIX file descriptors, accessing the file system,
command-line arguments, environment variables, etc.

This prelude is available to Algol 68 programs without needing to
import any module, provided they are compiled as @code{gnu68} code,
which is the default.

@menu
* POSIX process::           Process exit status.
* POSIX command line::      Parsing command-line arguments.
* POSIX environment::       Environment variables.
* POSIX errors::            Error handling and error descriptions.
* POSIX files::             Creating, opening and closing files.
* POSIX sockets::           Communication endpoints.
* POSIX string transput::   Reading and writing characters and strings.
@end menu

@node POSIX process
@section POSIX process

The Algol 68 program can report an exit status to the operating system
once they stop running.  The exit status reported by default is zero,
which corresponds to success.

@deftypefn Procedure {} {set exit status} {= (@B{int} status)}
Procedure that sets the exit status to report to the operating system
once the program stop executing.  The default exit status is 0 which,
by convention, is interpreted by POSIX systems as success.  A value
different to zero is interpreted as an error status.  This procedure
can be invoked more than one, the previous exit status being
overwritten.
@end deftypefn

@node POSIX command line
@section POSIX command line

Algol 68 programs can access the command-line arguments passed to them
by using the following procedures.

@deftypefn Procedure {} {argc} {= @B{int}}
Procedure that yields the number of arguments passed in the command
line, including the name of the program.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Procedure {} {argv} {= (@B{int} n) @B{string}}
Procedure that yields the @code{n}th argument passed in the command
line.  The first argument is always the name used to invoke the
program.  If @code{n} is out of range then this procedure returns the
empty string.
@end deftypefn

@node POSIX environment
@section POSIX environment

@deftypefn Procedure {} {getenv} {= (@B{string} varname) @B{string}}
Procedure that yields the value of the environment variable
@code{varname} as a string.  If the specified environmental variable
is not defined the this procedure returns an empty string.
@end deftypefn

@node POSIX errors
@section POSIX errors

When a call to a procedure in this prelude results in an error, the
called procedure signals the error in some particular way and also
sets a global @code{errno} to a code describing the error.  For
example, trying to opening a file that doesn't exist will result in
@code{fopen} returning -1, which signals an error.  The caller can
then inspect the global @code{errno} to see what particular error
prevented the operation to be completed: in this case, @code{errno}
will contain the error code corresponding to ``file doesn't exist''.

@deftypefn Procedure {} {errno} {= @B{int}}
This procedure yields the current value of the global @code{errno}.
The yielded value reflects the error status of the last executed POSIX
prelude operation.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Procedure {} {strerror} {= (@B{int} ecode) @B{string}}
This procedure gets an error code and yields a string containing an
explanatory short description of the error.  It is typical to pass the
output of @code{errno} to this procedure.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Procedure {} {perror} {= (@B{string} msg) @B{void}}
This procedure prints the given string @code{msg} in the standard
error output, followed by a colon character, a space character and
finally the string error of the current value of @code{errno}.
@end deftypefn

@node POSIX files
@section POSIX files

File descriptors are @code{@B{int}} values that identify open files
that can be accessed by the program.  The @code{fopen} procedure
allocates file descriptors as it opens files, and the descriptor is
used in subsequent transput calls to perform operations on the files.

@subsection Standard file descriptors

There are three descriptors, however, which are automatically opened
when the program starts executing and automatically closed when the
program finishes.  These are:

@deftypevr Constant {@B{int}} {stdin}
File descriptor associated with the standard input.  Its value is @code{0}.
@end deftypevr

@deftypevr Constant {@B{int}} {stdout}
File descriptor associated with the standard output.  Its value is @code{1}.
@end deftypevr

@deftypevr Constant {@B{int}} {stderr}
File descriptor associated with the standard error.  Its value is @code{2}.
@end deftypevr

@subsection Opening and closing files

@deftypefn Procedure {} {fopen} {= (@B{string} pathname, @B{bits} flags) @B{int}}
Open the file specified by @code{pathname}.  The argument @code{flags}
is a combination of @code{file o} flags as defined below.  If the
specified file is successfully opened while satisfying the constraints
implied by @code{flags} then this procedure yields a file descriptor
that is used in subsequent I/O calls to refer to the open
file. Otherwise, this procedure yields -1.  The particular error can
be inspected by calling the @code{errno} procedure.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Procedure {} {fclose} {= (@B{int} fd) @B{int}}
Close the given file descriptor, which no longer refers to any file.
This procedure yields zero on success, and -1 on error.  In the later
case, the program can look at the particular error by calling the
@code{errno} procedure.
@end deftypefn

@subsection Creating files

@deftypefn Procedure {} {fcreate} {= (@B{string} pathname, @B{bits} mode) @B{int}}
Create a file with name @code{pathname}.  The argument @code{mode} is
a @code{@B{bits}} value containing a bit pattern that determines the
permissions on the created file.  The bit pattern has the form
@code{8rUGO}, where @code{U} reflects the permissions of the user who
owns the file, @code{U} reflects the permissions of the users
pertaining to the file's group, and @code{O} reflects the permissions
of all other users.  The permission bits are 1 for execute, 2 for
write and 4 for read.  If the file is successfully created then this
procedure yields a file descriptor that is used in subsequent I/O
calls to refer to the newly created file.  Otherwise, this procedure
yields -1.  The particular error can be inspected by calling the
@code{errno} procedure.
@end deftypefn

@subsection Flags for @code{fopen}

The following flags can be combined using bit-wise operators.  Note
that in POSIX systems the effective mode of the created file is the
mode specified by the programmer masked with the process's
@dfn{umask}.

@deftypevr Constant {@B{bits}} {file o default}
Flag for @code{fopen} indicating that the file shall be opened with
whatever capabilities allowed by its permissions.
@end deftypevr

@deftypevr Constant {@B{bits}} {file o rdwr}
Flag for @code{fopen} indicating that the file shall be opened for
both reading and writing.
@end deftypevr

@deftypevr Constant {@B{bits}} {file o rdonly}
Flag for @code{fopen} indicating that the file shall be opened for
reading only.  This flag is not compatible with @code{file o rdwr} nor
with @code{file o wronly}.
@end deftypevr

@deftypevr Constant {@B{bits}} {file o wronly}
Flag for @code{fopen} indicating that the file shall be opened for
write only.  This flag is not compatible with @code{file o rdwr} nor
with @code{file o rdonly}.
@end deftypevr

@deftypevr Constant {@B{bits}} {file o trunc}
Flag for @code{fopen} indicating that the opened file shall be
truncated upon opening it.  The file must allow writing for this flag
to take effect.  The effect of combining @code{file o trunc} and
@code{file o rdonly} is undefined and varies among implementations.
@end deftypevr

@subsection Getting file properties

@deftypefn Procedure {} {fsize} {= (@B{int} fd) @B{long} @B{long} @B{int}}
Return the size in bytes of the file characterized by the file
descriptor @code{fd}.  If the system entity characterized by the given
file descriptor doesn't have a size, if the size of the file cannot be
stored in a @code{@B{long} @B{long} @B{int}}, or if there is any other
error condition, this procedure yields -1 and @code{errno} is set
appropriately.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Procedure {} {lseek} {= (@B{int} fd, @B{long int} offset, @B{int} whence) @B{long long int}}
Set the file offset of the file characterized by the file descriptor @code{fd}
depending on the values of @code{offset} and @code{whence}.  On success, the
resulting offset, as measured in bytes from the beginning of the file, is
returned. Otherwise, -1 is returned, @code{errno} is set to indicate the error,
and the file offset remains unchanged.  The effects of @code{offset} and
@code{whence} are:
@itemize
@item
If @code{whence} is @code{seek set}, the file offset is set to @code{offset}
bytes.
@item
If @code{whence} is @code{seek cur}, the file offset is set to its current
location plus @code{offset}.
@item
If @code{whence} is @code{seek end}, the file offset is set to the size of the
file plus @code{offset}.
@end itemize
@end deftypefn

@node POSIX sockets
@section POSIX sockets

A program can communicate with other computers, or with other
processes running in the same computer, via sockets.  The sockets are
identified by file descriptors.

@deftypefn Procedure {} {fconnect} {= (@B{string} host, @B{int} port) @B{int}}
This procedure creates a stream socket and connects it to the given
@code{host} using port @code{port}.  The established communication is
full-duplex, and allows sending and receiving data using transput
until it gets closed.  On success this procedure yields a file
descriptor.  On error this procedure yields -1 and @code{errno} is set
appropriately.
@end deftypefn

@node POSIX string transput
@section POSIX string transput

The following procedures read or write characters and strings from and
to open files.  The external encoding of the files is assumed to be
UTF-8.  Since Algol 68 @code{@B{char}}s are UCS-4, this means that
reading or writing a character may involve reading or writing more
than one byte, depending on the particular Unicode code points
involved.

@subsection Output of strings and chars

@deftypefn Procedure {} {putchar} {= (@B{char} c) @B{char}}
Write the given character to the standard output.  This procedure
yields @code{c} in case the character got successfully written, or
@code{eof char} otherwise.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Procedure {} {puts} {= (@B{string} str) @B{void}}
Write the given string to the standard output.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Procedure {} {fputc} {= (@B{int} fd, @B{char} c) @B{int}}
Write given character @code{c} to the file with descriptor @code{fd}.
This procedure yields @code{c} on success, or @code{eof char} on
error.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Procedure {} {fputs} {= (@B{int} fd, @B{string} str) @B{int}}
Write the given string @code{str} to the file with descriptor
@code{fd}.  This procedure yields the number of bytes written on
success, or 0 on error.
@end deftypefn

@subsection Input of strings and chars

@deftypefn Procedure {} {getchar} {= @B{char}}
Read a character from the standard input.  This procedure yields the
read character in case the character got successfully read, or
@code{eof char} otherwise.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Procedure {} {gets} {= (@B{int} n) @B{ref} @B{string}}
Read a string composed of @code{n} characters from the standard input
and yield a reference to it.  If @code{n} is bigger than zero then
characters get read until either @code{n} characters have been read or
the end of line is reached.  If @code{n} is zero or negative then
characters get read until either a new line character is read or the
end of line is reached.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Procedure {} {fgetc} {= (@B{int} fd) @B{int}}
Read a character from the file with descriptor @code{fd}.  This
procedure yields the read character in case a valid Unicode character
got successfully read.  If an unrecognizable or unknown character is
found then this procedure yields @code{replacement char}.  In case of
end of file this procedure yields @code{eof char}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn Procedure {} {fgets} {= (@B{int} fd, @B{int} n) @B{ref} @B{string}}
Read a string from the file with descriptor @code{fd} and yield a
reference to it.  If @code{n} is bigger than zero then characters get
read until either @code{n} characters have been read or the end of
line is reached.  If @code{n} is zero or negative then characters get
read until either a new line character is read or the end of line is
reached.
@end deftypefn

@node Language extensions
@chapter Language extensions

This chapter documents the GNU extensions implemented by this compiler
on top of the Algol 68 programming language.  These extensions
collectively conform a strict @dfn{superlanguage} of Algol 68, and are
enabled by default.  To disable them the user can select the strict
Algol 68 standard by passing the option @option{-std=algol68} when
invoking the compiler.

@menu
* @code{@B{bin}} and @code{@B{abs}} of negative integral values::
* Bold taggles::              Using underscores in mode and operator indications.
@end menu

@node @code{@B{bin}} and @code{@B{abs}} of negative integral values
@section @code{@B{bin}} and @code{@B{abs}} of negative integral values

The @code{@B{bin}} operator gets an integral value and yields a
@code{@B{bits}} value that reflects the internal bits of the integral
value.  The semantics of this operator, as defined in the Algol 68
standard prelude, are:

@example
@B{op} @B{bin} = (L @B{int} a) L @B{bits}:
  @B{if} a >= L 0
  @B{then} L @B{int} b := a; L @B{bits};
       @B{for} i @B{from} L bits width @B{by} -1 @B{to} 1
       @B{do} (L F @B{of} c)[i] := @B{odd} b; b := b % L 2 @B{od};
       c
  @B{fi};
@end example

The @code{@B{abs}} operator performs the inverse operation of
@code{@B{bits}}.  Given a @code{L @B{bits}} value, it yields the
@code{L @B{int}} value whose bits representation is the bits value.
The semantics of this operator, as defined in the Algol 68 prelude,
are:

@example
@B{op} @B{abs} = (L @B{bits} a) L @B{int}:
@B{begin} L @B{int} c := L 0;
      @B{for} i @B{to} L bits width
      @B{do} c := L 2 * c + K @B{abs} (L F @B{of} a)[i] @B{od};
      c
@B{end}
@end example

@noindent
Note how the @code{@B{bin}} of a negative integral value is not
defined: the implicit else-part of the conditional yields
@code{@B{skip}}, which is defined as any bits value in that context.
Note also how @code{@B{abs}} doesn't make any provision to check
whether the resulting value is positive: it assumes it is so.

The GNU Algol 68 compiler, when working in strict Algol 68 mode
(@option{-std=algol68}), makes @code{@B{bin}} to always yield @code{L
@B{bits} (@B{skip})} when given a negative value, as mandated by the
report.  But the skip value is always the bits representation of zero,
@i{i.e.} 2r0.  Strict Algol 68 programs, however, must not rely on
this.

When GNU extensions are enabled (@option{-std=gnu68}) the
@code{@B{bin}} of a negative value yields the two's complement bit
pattern of the value rather than zero.  Therefore, @code{@B{bin} -
@B{short} @B{short} 2} yields @code{2r11111110}.  And @code{@B{abs}
@B{short} @B{short} 2r11111110} yields -2.

@node Bold taggles
@section Bold taggles

This compiler supports the stropping regimes known as UPPER and
SUPPER.  In both regimes bold words are written by writing their
constituent bold letters and digits, in order.  In UPPER regime all
the letters of a bold word are to be written using upper-case.  In
SUPPER regime, only the first bold letter is required to be written
using upper-case, and this only when the bold word is not a reserved
word.

When a bold word comprises several natural words, it may be a little
difficult to distinguish them at first sight.  Consider for example
the following code, written fist in UPPER stropping:

@example
MODE TREENODE = STRUCT (TREENODEPAYLOAD data, REF TREENODE next),
     TREENODEPAYLOAD = STRUCT (INT code, REAL average, mean);
@end example

@noindent
Then written in SUPPER stropping:

@example
mode TreeNode = struct (TreeNodePayload data, REF TreeNode next),
     TreeNodePayload = struct (int code, real average, mean);
@end example

Particularly in UPPER stropping, it may be difficult to distinguish
the constituent natural words at first sight.

In order to improve this, this compiler implements a GNU extension
called @dfn{bold taggles} that allows to use underscore characters
(@code{_}) within mode and operator indications as a visual aid to
improve readability.  When this extension is enabled, mode indications
and operator indications consist in a sequence of the so-called
@dfn{bold taggles}, which are themselves sequences of one or more bold
letters or digits optionally terminated by an underscore character.

With bold taggles enabled the program above could have been written
using UPPER stropping as:

@example
MODE TREE_NODE = STRUCT (TREE_NODE_PAYLOAD data, REF TREE_NODE next),
     TREE_NODE_PAYLOAD = STRUCT (INT code, REAL average, mean);
@end example

@noindent
And using SUPPER stropping as:

@example
mode Tree_Node = struct (Tree_Node_Payload data, ref Tree_Node next),
     Tree_Node_Payload = struct (int code, real average, mean);
@end example

@noindent
Which is perhaps more readable for most people.  Note that the
underscore characters are not really part of the mode or operator
indication.  Both @code{TREE_NODE} and @code{TREENODE} denote the same
mode indication.  Note also that, following the definition, constructs
like @code{Foo__bar} and @code{_Baz} are not valid indications.

Bold taggles are available when the gnu68 dialect of the language is
selected.  @xref{Dialect options}.

@include gpl_v3.texi
@include fdl.texi

@node Option Index
@unnumbered Option Index

@command{ga68}'s command line options are indexed here without any initial
@samp{-} or @samp{--}.  Where an option has both positive and negative forms
(such as @option{-f@var{option}} and @option{-fno-@var{option}}), relevant
entries in the manual are indexed under the most appropriate form; it may
sometimes be useful to look up both forms.

@printindex op

@node General Index
@unnumbered Index

@printindex cp

@bye